Man, Past and Present - Agustus Henry Keane, A. Hingston Quiggin, Alfred Court Haddon (most popular novels txt) 📗

from their conquerors, the Celtic Venedi, who occupied the Vistula region in the 3rd or 2nd centuries B.C. See T. Peisker, "The Expansion of the Slavs," Camb. Med. Hist. Vol. II. 1913, p. 421 n. 2.

[1302] That is, the Elbe Slaves, from po=by, near, and Labe=Elbe; cf. Pomor (Pomeranians), "by the Sea"; Borussia, Porussia, Prussia, originally peopled by the Pruczi, a branch of the Lithuanians Germanised in the 17th century.

[1303] Carpath, Khrobat, Khorvat are all the same word, meaning highlands, mountains, hence not strictly an ethnic term, although at present so used by the Crovats or Croatians, a considerable section of the Yugo-Slavs south of the Danube.

[1304] See note 5, p. 537.

[1305] That is, "Highlanders" (root alb, alp, height, hill). From Albanites through the Byzantine Arvanites comes the Turkish Arnaut, while the national name Skipetar has precisely the same meaning (root skip, scop, as in [Greek: skopelos], scopulus, cliff, crag).

[1306] There are about twenty of these phis or phar (phratries) amongst the Ghegs, and the practice of exogamous marriage still survives amongst the Mirdites south of the Drin, who, although Catholics, seek their wives amongst the surrounding hostile Turkish and Muhammadan Gheg populations.

[1307] J. Deniker, "Les Six Races composant la Population actuelle de l'Europe," Journ. Anthr. Inst. XXXIV. 1904, pp. 182, 202.

[1308] Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop. VII. 1896.

[1309] Hence Virchow (Meeting Ger. Anthrop. Soc. 1897) declared that the extent and duration of the Slav encroachments in German territory could not be determined by the old skulls, because it is impossible to say whether a given skull is Slav or not.

[1310] Especially Lubor Niederle, for whom the proto-Slavs are unquestionably long-headed blonds like the Teutons, although he admits that round skulls occur even of old date, and practically gives up the attempt to account for the transition to the modern Slav.

[1311] "The Racial Geography of Europe," in Popular Science Monthly, June, 1897.

[1312] Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop. 1896, p. 81 sq.

[1313] Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop. 1894, p. 36.

[1314] Droit Coutumier Ossethien, 1893.

[1315] Quoted by Ujfalvy, Les Aryens etc. p. 11.

[1316] The Yagnobi of the river of like name, an affluent of the Zerafshan; yet even this shows lexical affinities with Iranic, while its structure seems to connect it with Leitner's Kajuna and Biddulph's Burish, a non-Aryan tongue current in Ghilghit, Yasin, Hunza and Nagar, whose inhabitants are regarded by Biddulph as descendants of the Yue-chi. The Yagnobi themselves, however, are distinctly Alpines, somewhat short, very hirsute and brown, with broad face, large head, and a Savoyard expression. They have the curious custom of never cutting but always breaking their bread, the use of the knife being sure to raise the price of flour.

[1317] F. v. Luschan points out that very little is known of the anthropology of Persia. "In a land inhabited by about ten millions not more than twenty or thirty men have been regularly measured and not one skull has been studied." The old type preserved in the Parsi is short-headed and dark. "The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia," Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst. XLI. 1911, p. 233.

[1318] Dih, deh, village. Zaban, tongue, language.

[1319] H. Walter, From Indus to Tigris, p. 16. Of course this traveller refers only to the Tajiks of the plateau (Persia, Afghanistan). Of the Galchic Tajiks he knew nothing; nor indeed is the distinction even yet quite understood by European ethnologists.

[1320] III. 91.

[1321] Even Ptolemy's [Greek: pasichai] appear to be the same people, [Greek: p] being an error for [Greek: t], so that [Greek: tasikai] would be the nearest possible Greek transcription of Tajik.

[1322] Tribes of the Hindoo-Koosh, 1880, passim.

[1323] An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul, 1815.

[1324] "Ces Savoyards attardes du Kohistan" (Ujfalvy, Les Aryensetc.).

[1325] The anthropological data are dealt with by T. A. Joyce, "Notes on the Physical Anthropology of Chinese Turkestan and the Pamirs," Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst. XLII. 1912. "The original inhabitant ... is that type of man described by Lapouge as Homo Alpinus," p. 468.

[1326] F. v. Luschan, "The Early Inhabitants of Asia," Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst. XLI. 1911, p. 243.

[1327] For the evidence of the extension of this element in East Central Asia see Ch. IX.

[1328] R. B. Foote, Madras Government Museum. The Foote Collection of Indian Prehistoric and Protohistoric Antiquities. Notes on their ages and distribution, 1916, is the most recent contribution to the prehistoric period, but the conclusions are not universally accepted.

[1329] A. F. R. Hoernle, A Grammar of Eastern Hindi compared with the other Gaudian Languages, 1880, first suggested (p. xxxi. ff.) the distinction between the languages of the Midland and the Outer Band, which has been corroborated by G. A. Grierson, Languages of India, 1903, p. 51; Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1907-8, Vol. I. pp. 357-8.

[1330] H. H. Risley, The People of India, 1908, p. 54. See also J. D. Anderson, The Peoples of India, 1913, p. 27.

[1331] Tribes and Castes of Bengal etc. 1892, Indian Census Report, 1901, and Imperial Gazetteer, Vol. I. ch. VI.

[1332] The jungle tribes of this group, such as the Paniyan, Kurumbaand Irula are classed as PRE-DRAVIDIAN. See chap. XII.

[1333] A. C. Haddon, Wanderings of Peoples, 1911, p. 27.

[1334] The Indo-Aryan Races, 1916, pp. 65-71 and 75-78.

[1335] "A Third Journey of Exploration in Central Asia 1913-16," Geog. Journ. 1916.

[1336] Natives of Northern India, 1907, pp. 19, 24. See also his article "R[=a]jputs and Mar[=a]thas," Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst. XL. 1910.

[1337] "His report, compiled during the inevitable distractions incident to the enumeration of a population of some 300 millions, was a notable performance, and will remain one of the classics of Indian anthropology." "The Stability of Caste and Tribal Groups in India," Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst. XLIV. 1914, p. 270.

[1338] A vast amount of material has been collected in recent years besides Ethnographical Surveys of the various provinces, the Imperial Gazetteer of 1909, and the magnificent Census Reports of 1901 and 1911. Some of the more important works are as follows:--H. H. Risley, Ethnography of India, 1903, The People of India, 1908; E. Thurston, Ethnographical Notes on Southern India, 1906, Castes and Tribes of Southern India, 1909; H. A. Rose, Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and N.W. Frontier Province, 1911; E. A. de Brett, Gazetteer, Chhatisgarh Feudatory States, 1909; C. E. Luard, Ethnographic Survey, Central India, 1909; L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, The Cochin Tribes and Castes, 1909, Tribes and Castes of Cochin, 1912; M. Longworth Dames, The Baloch Race, 1904; W. H. R. Rivers, The Todas, 1906; P. R. T. Gurdon, The Khasis, 1907; T. C. Hodson, The Meitheis, 1908, The Naga Tribes of Manipur, 1911; E. Stack and C. J. Lyall, The Mikirs, 1908; A. Playfair, The Garos, 1909; S. Endle, The Kacharis, 1911; C. G. and B. Z. Seligman, The Veddas, 1911; J. Shakespear, The Lushei Kuki Clans, 1912; S. Chandra Roy, The Mundas and their Country, 1912, The Oraons, 1915; and R. V. Russell, Tribes and Castes of the N.W. Central Provinces, 1916.

[1339] The term Kol, which occurs as an element in a great many tribal names, and was first introduced by Campbell in a collective sense (1866), is of unknown origin, but probably connected with a root meaning "Man" (W. Crooke, Tribes and Castes, III. p. 294).

[1340] Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, p. 190.

[1341] In a letter to the author, June 18, 1895.

[1342] Edgar Thurston, Anthropology etc., Bul. 4, Madras, 1896, pp. 147-8. For fuller details see his Castes and Tribes of S. India, 1909.

[1343] The Todas, 1906. See chap. XXX. "The Origin and History of the Todas."

[1344] For the discussion of Caste see E. A. Gait's article in Ency. of Religion and Ethics, 1910, with bibliography; also V. A. Smith, Caste in India, East and West, 1913.

[1345] See Ch. VII.

[1346] See A. Kraemer, Hawaii, Ostmikronesien und Samoa, 1906.

[1347] For Polynesian wanderings see S. Percy Smith, Hawaiki: the original home of the Maori, 1904; J. M. Brown, Maori and Polynesian; their origin, history and culture, 1907; W. Churchill, The Polynesian Wanderings, 1911.

[1348] H everywhere takes the place of S, which is preserved only in the Samoan mother-tongue; cf. Gr. [Greek: hepta] with Lat. septem, Eng. seven.

[1349] The History of Melanesian Society, 1914.

[1350] Cf. p. 139 ff.

[1351] Among recent works on Polynesia see H. Mager, Le Monde polynesien, 1902; B. H. Thomson, Savage Island, 1902; A. Kraemer, Die Samoa-Inseln, 1902; J. M. Brown, Maori and Polynesian, 1907; G. Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, 1910; F. W. Christian, Eastern Pacific Islands, 1910.

 

APPENDIX A. (p. 5)

Since the first few pages of this book were in print an important memoir on the "Phylogeny of Recent and Extinct Anthropoids with Special Reference to the Origin of Man" has been published by W. K. Gregory (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Vol. XXXV., Article XIX, pp. 258 ff., New York, 1916). As Gregory's lucid statement of the problems involved is based on a prolonged examination of very varied and abundant material we have considered it advisable to present his summary. The chief conclusions, which appear to be of a conservative character, are as follows (p. 341).

The Origin of Man.

Comparative anatomical (including embryological) evidence alone has shown that man and the anthropoids have been derived from a primitive anthropoid stock and that man's existing relatives are the chimpanzee and the gorilla. The chimpanzee and gorilla have retained, with only minor changes, the ancestral habits and habitus in brain, dentition, skull and limbs, while the forerunners of the Hominidae, through a profound change in function, lost the primitive anthropoid habitus, gave up arboreal frugivorous adaptations and early became terrestrial, bipedal and predatory, using crude flints to cut up and smash the varied food. The ancestral chimpanzee-gorilla-man stock appears to be represented by the Upper Miocene genera Sivapithecus and Dryopithecus, the former more closely allied to, or directly ancestral to, the Hominidae, the latter to the chimpanzee and gorilla. Many of the differences that separate man from anthropoids of the Sivapithecus type are retrogressive changes, following the profound change in food habits above noted. Here belong the retraction of the face and dental arch, the reduction in size of the canines, the reduction of the jaw muscles, the loss of the prehensile character of the hallux. Many other differences are secondary adjustments in relative proportions, connected with the change from semi-arboreal, semi-erect and semi-quadrupedal progression to fully terrestrial bipedal progression. The earliest anthropoids being of small size doubtless had slender limbs; later semi-terrestrial semi-erect forms were probably not unlike a very young gorilla, with fairly short legs and not excessively elongate arms. The long legs and short arms of man are due, I believe, to a secondary readjustment of proportions. The very short legs and very long arms of old male gorillas may well be a specialization. At present I know no good evidence for believing that the separation of the Hominidae from the Simiidae took place any earlier than the Miocene, and probably the Upper Miocene. The change in structure during this vast interval (two or more million years) is much greater in the Hominidae than in the conservative anthropoids, but it is not unlikely that during a profound change of life habits evolution sometimes proceeds more rapidly than in the more familiar cases where uninterrupted adaptations proceed in a single direction. Homo heidelbergensis appears to be directly ancestral to all the later Hominidae.

On the evolution of human food habits.

While all the great apes are prevailingly frugivorous, and even their forerunners in the Lower Oligocene have the teeth well adapted for piercing the tough rinds of fruits and for chewing vegetable food, yet they also appear to have at least a latent capacity for a mixed diet. The digestive tract, especially of the chimpanzee and gorilla, is essentially similar to that of man and at least some captive chimpanzees thrive upon a mixed diet including large quantities of fruits, vegetables and bread and small quantities of meat[1352]. Mr R. L. Garner, who has spent many years in studying the African anthropoids in their wild state, states[1353] that "their foods are mainly vegetable, but that flesh is an essential part of their diet." Other observers state[1354] that the gorilla