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A. Joyce, South American Archaeology, 1912, p. 243; R. E. Latham, "Ethnology of the Araucanos," Journ. Roy. Anth. Inst. XXXIX. 1909, p. 355.

[929] Latham, p. 356.

[930] Ibid. pp. 344-50.

[931] In the Anales de la Universidad de Chile for 1897.

[932] T. A. Joyce, p. 240.

[933] Properly Griegos, "Greeks," so called because supposed to speak "Greek," i.e. any language other than Spanish.

[934] Urbewohner Brasiliens, 1897, pp. 69, 110, 125.

[935] Unter den Naturvoelkern Zentral-Brasiliens, 1894, pp. 441-3, 468 ff.

[936] Quarterly Journal of Swiss Naturalists, Zurich, 1896, p. 496 ff.; cf. T. A. Joyce, South American Archaeology, 1912, pp. 241-2.

[937] L'Homme Americain, II. p. 70.

[938] They were replaced or absorbed partly by the Patagonians, but chiefly by the Araucanian Puelche, who many years ago migrated down the Rio Negro as far as El Carmen and even to the coast at Bahia Blanca. Hence Hale's Puelche were in fact Araucanians with a Patagonian strain.

[939] Mission Scientifique de Cap Horn, VII., par P. Hyades et J. Deniker, 1891, pp. 238, 243, 378.

[940] For the latest information and full bibliography see J. M. Cooper, Bureau Am. Eth. Bull. 63, 1917, and Proc. Nineteenth Internat. Congress Americanists, 1917, p. 445; also, C. W. Furlong, ibid. pp. 420 ff., 432 ff.

[941] Markham, "List of Tribes," etc., Journ. Roy. Anth. Inst. XI. 1910, pp. 89-90.

[942] Ibid.

[943] T. Whiffen, The North-West Amazons, 1915, pp. 48, 78, 91, etc.

[944] For the material culture of the Araguayan tribes, cf. Fritz Krause, In den Wildnissen Brasiliens, 1911.

[945] T. Koch-Gruenberg, Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern, 2 vols. Berlin, 1910. See Vol. II. map after p. 319.

[946] Ehrenreich, loc. cit. p. 45 ff.; von den Steinen, loc. cit. p. 153 ff.

[947] It should be stated that a like conclusion was reached by Lucien Adam from the vocabularies brought by Crevaux from the Upper Japura tribes--Witotos, Corequajes, Kariginas and others--all of Carib speech.

[948] A. C. Haddon, The Wanderings of Peoples, Cambridge, 1911, p. 109.

[949] Described by E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, London, 1883.

[950] A. C. Haddon, The Wanderings of Peoples, pp. 110-11.

[951] V. d. Steinen, Unter den Naturvoelkern Zentral-Brasiliens, p. 157. "D'apres Goncalves Dias les tribus bresiliennes descendraient de deux races absolument distinctes: la race conquerante des Tupi ... et la race vaincue, pourchassee, des Tapuya...."; V. de Saint-Martin, p. 517, Nouveau Dictionnaire de Geographie Universelle, 1879, A--C.

[952] Novos Estudios Craniologicos sobre os Botocudos, Rio Janeiro, 1882, passim.

[953] Possibly so called from the Portuguese botoque, a barrel plug, from the wooden plug or disc formerly worn by all the tribes both as a lip ornament and an ear-plug, distending the lobes like great leathern bat's-wings down to the shoulders. But this embellishment is called tembeitera by the Brazilians, and Botocudo may perhaps be connected with beto-apoc, the native name of the ear-plug.

[954] They are the Cambebas of the Tupi, a term also meaning Flatheads, and they are so called because "apertao aos recemnacidos as cabecas entre duas taboas afim de achatal-as, costume que actualmente han perdido" (Milliet, II. p. 174).

[955] Such "identities" as Tic. dreja = Aym. chacha (man); etai = utax (house) etc., are not convincing, especially in the absence of any scientific study of the laws of Lautverschiebung, if any exist between the Aymara-Ticuna phonetic systems. And then the question of loan words has to be settled before any safe conclusions can be drawn from such assumed resemblances. The point is important in the present connection, because current statements regarding the supposed reduction of the number of stock languages in South America are largely based on the unscientific comparison of lists of words, which may have nothing in common except perhaps a letter or two like the m in Macedon and Monmouth. Two languages (cf. Turkish and Arabic) may have hundreds or thousands of words in common, and yet belong to fundamentally different linguistic families.

[956] A. Balbi, Atlas Ethnographique du Globe, XXVII. With regard to the numerals this authority tells us that "il a emprunte a l'espagnol ses noms de nombres" (ib.).

[957] Markham, List of the Tribes, p. 92.

[958] Urbewohner Brasiliens, p. 101.

[959] "La vie des Indiens dans le Chaco," trans. by H. Beuchat, Rev. de Geog. annuelle, t. VI. Paris, 1912. Cf. also the forthcoming book by R. Karsten of Helsingfors who has recently visited some of these tribes.

[960] While this account of Central and South America was in the Press Clark Wissler's valuable book was published, The American Indian, New York, 1917. He describes (pp. 227-42) the following culture areas:

The Nahua area (the ancient Maya and the later Aztec cultures). The Chibcha area (from the Chibcha-speaking Talamanca and Chiriqui of Costa Rica to and including Colombia and western Venezuela).

XII. The Inca area (Ecuador, Peru and northern Chili).

XIII. The Guanaco area (lower half of Chili, Argentine, Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego).

XIV. The Amazon area (all the rest of South America).

The Antilles (West Indies, linking on to the Amazon area). CHAPTER XII(THE PRE-DRAVIDIANS: JUNGLE TRIBES OF THE DECCAN, VEDDA, SAKAI, AUSTRALIANS)

The Pre-Dravidians--The Kadir--The Paniyan--The Irula--The Kurumba--The Vedda--The Sakai--The Toala--Australia: Physical Conditions--Physical Type--Australian Origins--Evidence from Language and Culture--Four Successive Immigrations--Earlier Views--Material Culture--Sociology--Initiation Ceremonies-- Totemism--The Family--Kinship--Property and Trade--Magic and Religion.

CONSPECTUS.

#Present Range.# Jungle Tribes, Deccan; Vedda, Ceylon; Sakai, Malay Peninsula and East Sumatra; Australians, unsettled parts of Australia and reservations.

#Hair#, wavy to curly, long, usually black.

#Colour#, dark brown. #Skull#, typically dolichocephalic. Vedda skull dolichocephalic (70.5) and very small, Sakai mesaticephalic (78), Toala (mixed) low brachycephalic (82). #Jaws#, orthognathous. Australians, generally prognathous. #Nose#, usually platyrrhine. #Stature#, low. Vedda 1.53 m. (5 ft. 0-1/2 in.) to Australian 1.575 m. (5 ft. 2 in.)

#Speech#, Jungle tribes, usually borrowed from neighbours. Australian languages agglutinative, not uniform throughout the continent and unconnected with any other group.

#Culture#, lowest hunting stage, simple agriculture has been adopted by a few tribes from their neighbours.

* * * * *

The term Pre-Dravidian, the first use of which seems to be due to Lapicque, is now employed to include certain jungle tribes of South India, the Vedda of Ceylon, the Sakai of the southern Malay Peninsula, the basal element in certain tribes in the East India Archipelago and the main element in the Australians. Pre-Dravidian characters are coarse hair, more or less wavy or curly, a narrow head, a very broad nose, dark brown skin and short stature.

The following may be taken as examples of the Pre-Dravidian jungle tribes of Southern India[961]. The Kadir of the Anaimalai Hills and the mountain ranges south into Travancore, are of short stature (1.577 m. 5 ft. 2 in.), with a dark skin, dolichocephalic and platyrrhine. They chip their incisor teeth, as do the Mala-Vadan, and dilate the lobes of their ears, but do not tattoo. They wear bamboo combs similar to those of the Sakai. They speak a Tamil patois. "The Kadirs," according to Thurston, "afford a typical example of happiness without culture"; they are nomad hunters and collectors of jungle products, with scarcely any tillage; they do not possess land but have the right to collect all minor forest produce and sell it to the Government. They deal most extensively in wax and honey. They are polygynous. Their dead are buried in the jungle, the head is entirely covered with leaves and placed towards the east; there are no monuments. Their religion is a crude polytheism with a vague worship of stone images or invisible gods; it is "an ejaculatory religion."

The Paniyan, who live in Malabar, the Wynad and the Nilgiris, have thick and sometimes everted lips and the hair is in some a mass of short curls, in others long wavy curls. They are dark skinned, dolichocephalic (index 74), platyrrhine and of short stature (1.574 m. 5 ft. 2 in.). They sometimes tattoo, and the lobes of the ears are dilated. Fire is made by the sawing method. They are agriculturalists and were practically serfs; they are bold and reckless and were formerly often employed as thieves. They speak a debased Malayalam patois. Their dead are buried; they practise monogamy and have beliefs in various spirits.

The Irula are the darkest of the Nilgiri tribes. They are dolichocephalic (index 75.8), platyrrhine and of low stature (1.598 m. nearly 5 ft. 3 in.). No tattooing is recorded, but they dilate the lobes of their ears. Their language is a corrupt form of Tamil. They are agriculturalists and eat all kinds of meat except that of buffaloes and cattle. They are as a rule monogamous. Their dead are buried in a sitting posture and the grave is marked by a stone. Professedly they are worshippers of Vishnu.

The jungle Kurumba of the Nilgiris appear to be remnants of a great and widely spread people who erected dolmens. They have slightly broader heads (index 77) than allied tribes, but resemble them in their broad nose, dark skin and low stature (1.575 m. 5 ft. 2 in.). They cultivate the ground a little, but are essentially woodcutters, hunters, and collectors of jungle produce. There is said to be no marriage rite, and several brothers share a wife. Some bury their dead. After a death a long waterworn stone is usually placed in one of the old dolmens which are scattered over the Nilgiri plateau, but occasionally a small dolmen is raised to mark the burial. They have a great reputation for magical powers. Some worship Siva, others worship Kuribattraya (Lord of many sheep), and the wife of Siva. They also worship a rough stone, setting it up in a cave or in a circle of stones to which they make puja and offer cooked rice at the sowing time. The Kadu Kurumba of Mysore bury children but cremate adults; there is a separate house in each village for unmarried girls and another at the end of the village for unmarried males.

The Vedda of Ceylon have long black coarse wavy or slightly curly hair. The cephalic index is 70.5, the nose is depressed at the root, almost platyrrhine; the broad face is remarkably orthognathous and the forehead is slightly retreating with prominent brow arches; the lips are thin, and the skin is dark brown. The stature is extremely low, only 1.533 m. (5 ft. 0-1/2 in.). The Coast and less pure Vedda average 43 mm. (1-3/4 in.) taller and have broader heads. The true Vedda are a grave but happy people, quiet, upright, hospitable with a strong love of liberty. Lying and theft are unknown. They are timid and have a great fear of strangers. The bow and arrow are their only weapons and the arrow tipped with iron obtained from the Sinhalese forms a universal tool. They speak a modified Sinhali, but employ only one numeral and count with sticks. They live under rock shelters or in simple huts made of boughs. They are strictly monogamous and live in isolated families with no chiefs and have no regular clan meetings. Each section of the Vedda had in earlier days its own hunting grounds where fish, game, honey, and yams constituted their sole food. The wild Vedda simply leave their dead in a cave, which is then deserted. The three things that loom largest in the native mind are hunting, honey, and the cult of the dead. The last constitutes almost the whole of the religious life and magical practices of the people; it is the motif of almost every dance and may have been the source of