The History Of Education - Ellwood P. Cubberley (classic novels for teens .TXT) 📗
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We have now before us the great contributions to a philosophy for the educational process made since the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Many other workers in different lands, but more particularly in German lands, France, Italy, England, and the United States, have added their labors to the expansion and redirection of the school. They are too numerous to mention and, though often nationally important, need not be included here. Still more, the contributions of Pestalozzi, Herbart, Froebel, Spencer, Dewey, and their followers and disciples are so interwoven in the educational theory and practice of to-day that it is in most cases impossible to separate them from one another. [39]
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. How do you explain the long-continued objection to teacher-training?
2. Contrast “oral and objective teaching” with the former “individual instruction.”
3. Show how complete a change in classroom procedure this involved.
4. Show how Pestalozzian ideas necessitated a “technique of instruction.”
5. Why is it that Pestalozzian ideas as to language and arithmetic instruction have so slowly influenced the teaching of grammar, language, and arithmetic?
6. How do you explain the decline in importance of the once-popular mental arithmetic?
7. Show how child study was a natural development from the Pestalozzian psychology and methodology.
8. Explain what is meant by the statements that Herbart rejected: (a) The conventional-social ideal of Locke.
(b) The unsocial ideal of Rousseau.
(c) The “faculty-psychology” conception of Pestalozzi.
9. Explain what is meant by saying that Herbart conceived of education as broadly social, rather than personal.
10. Show in what ways and to what extent Herbart: (a) Enlarged our conception of the educational process.
(b) Improved the instruction content and process.
11. Explain why Herbartian ideas took so much more quickly in the United States than did Pestalozzianism.
12. State the essentials of the kindergarten idea, and the psychology behind it.
13. State the contribution of the kindergarten idea to education.
14. Show the connection between the sense impression ideas of Pestalozzi, the self-activity of Froebel, and the manual activities of the modern elementary school.
15. Explain why scientific studies came into the schools so slowly, up to about 1860, and so very rapidly after about that time.
16. Explain the particularly long resistance to the introduction of scientific studies by industrial England.
17. State the comparative importance of content and drill in education.
18. Does the reasoning of Herbert Spencer appeal to you as sound? If not, why not?
19. Show how the argument of Spencer for the study of science was also an argument for a more general diffusion of educational advantages.
20. Would schools have advanced in importance as they have done had the industrial revolution not taken place? Why?
21. Why is more extended education called for as “industrial life becomes more diversified, its parts narrower, and its processes more concealed”?
22. Point out the social significance of the educational work of John Dewey.
23. Point out the value, in the new order of society, of each group of school subjects listed in footnote 1 on page 763.
24. Contrast the virtues of a school before Pestalozzi’s time and those of a modern school.
SELECTED READINGS
In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections illustrative of the contents of this chapter are reproduced: 344. Bache: The German Seminaries for Teachers.
345. Bache: A German Teachers’ Seminary Described.
346. Bache: A French Normal School Described.
347. Barnard: Beginnings of Teacher-Training in England.
348. Barnard: The Pupil-Teacher System Described.
349. Clinton: Recommendation for Teacher-Training Schools.
350. Massachusetts: Organizing the First Normal Schools.
(a) The Organizing Law.
(b) Admission and Instruction in.
(c) Mann: Importance of the Normal School.
351. Early Textbooks: Examples of Instruction from (a) Davenport: History of the United States.
(b) Morse: Elements of Geography—Map.
(c) Morse Elements of Geography.
352. Murray: A Typical Teacher’s Contract.
353. Bache: The Elementary Schools of Berlin in 1838.
354. Providence: Grading the Schools of.
355. Felkin: Herbart’s Educational Ideas.
356. Felkin: Herbart’s Educational Ideas Applied.
357. Titchener: Herbart and Modern Psychology.
358. Marenholtz-B�low: Froebel’s Educational Views.
359. Huxley: English and German Universities Contrasted.
360. Huxley: Mid-nineteenth-Century Elementary Education in England.
361. Huxley: Mid-nineteenth-Century Secondary Education in England.
362. Spencer: What Knowledge is of Most Worth?
363. Spencer: Conclusions as to the Importance of Science.
364. Dewey: The Old and New Psychology Contrasted.
365. Ping: Difficulties in Transforming the School.
(a) Relating Education to Life.
(b) The Old Teacher and the New System.
366. Dewey: Socialization of School Work illustrated by History.
QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS
1. Contrast the instruction in a German Teachers’ Seminary (345) or a French normal school (346) of 1838, as described by Bache, with that of an American normal school of to-day.
2. What do the beginnings of teacher training in England (347, 348) indicate as to conceptions then existing as to the educational process?
3. Show, by comparison, that the beginnings of the American normal school were German, rather than English in origin.
4. Just what educational conditions does Governor Clinton (349) indicate as existing in New York State, in 1827?
5. Contrast the instruction in the early Massachusetts normal schools (350) with that in the German (345) and French (346) of about the same time.
6. What do the three professional courses reproduced (345, 346, 350 b) indicate as to the development of pedagogical work by about 1840?
7. Compare the textbook types, given in 351, with modern textbooks in equivalent subjects.
8. Just what light on school teaching, in 1841, does the teacher’s contract given (352) throw?
9. State the steps in the evolution of a graded system of schools (353, 354).
10. State the essentials of Herbart’s educational ideas (355,356), and the nature of the advances made over his predecessors.
11. State the essentials of Froebel’s educational ideas, as explained by the Baroness von Marenholtz-B�low (358).
12. Explain the difference between the universities of the two nations (359).
13. Contrast elementary education in England (360) with that in the United States at the same period.
14. Would you add anything else to Spencer’s requirements to prepare for complete living? What? Why?
15. How do you explain science being “written against in our theologies and frowned upon from our pulpits” (363) when it is of such importance as Spencer concludes?
16. Contrast the old and the new psychology (357, 364).
17. Have the difficulties experienced in the transformation of instruction in China (365) been essentially different than with us? How?
18. Apply Dewey’s idea as to the socialization of history (366) to instruction in geography.
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES
Barnard, Henry. National Education in Europe.
* Bowen, H. C. Froebel and Education through Self-Activity.
Compayr�, G. Herbart and Education by Instruction.
* De Garmo, Chas. Herbart and the Herbartians.
Dewey, John. The School and Social Progress. (Nine numbers.) * Dewey, John. The School and Society.
Gordy, J. P. Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea in the United States. Circular of Information, United States Bureau of Education, No. 8, 1891.
Hollis, A. P. The Oswego Movement.
* Jordan, D. S. “Spencer’s Essay on Education”; in Cosmopolitan Magazine, vol. xxix, pp. 135-49. (Sept. 1902.) Judd, C. H. The Training of Teachers in England, Scotland, and Germany. (Bulletin 35, 1914, United States Bureau of Education.) Monroe, Will S. History of the Pestalozzian Movement in the United States.
* Parker, S. C. History of Modern Elementary Education.
Ping Wen Kuo. The Chinese System of Public Education.
Spencer, Herbert. Education: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical.
Vanderwalker, N. C. The Kindergarten in American Education.
NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS
I. POLITICAL
THE ENLARGED CONCEPTION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. The new ideas as to the purpose and functions of the State promulgated by English and French eighteenth-century thinkers, and given concrete expression in the American and French revolutions near the close of the century, imparted, as we have seen, a new meaning to the school and a new purpose to the education of a people. In the theoretical discussion of education by Rousseau and the empirical work of Pestalozzi a new individualistic theory for a secular school was created, and this Prussia, for long moving in that direction, first adopted as a basis for the state school system it early organized to serve national ends. The new American States, also long moving toward state organization and control, early created state schools to replace the earlier religious schools; while the French Revolution enthusiasts abolished the religious school and ordered the substitution of a general system of state schools to serve their national ends.
From these beginnings, as we have seen, the state-school idea has in course of time spread to all continents, and nations everywhere to-day have come to feel that the maintenance of a more or less comprehensive system of state schools is so closely connected with national welfare and progress as to be a necessity for the State (R. 367). In consequence, state ministries for education have been created in all the important world nations; state and local school officials have been provided generally to see that the state purpose in creating schools is carried out; state normal schools for the preparation of teachers have been established; comprehensive state school codes have been enacted or educational decrees formulated; and constantly increasing expenditures for education are to-day derived by taxing the wealth of the State to educate the children of the State.
CHANGE FROM THE ORIGINAL PURPOSE. The original purpose in the establishment of schools by the State was everywhere to promote literacy and citizenship. Under all democratic forms of government it was also to insure to the people the elements of learning that they might be prepared for participation in the functions of government. [1] This is well expressed in the quotations given (p. 525) from early American statesmen as to the need for the education of public opinion and the diffusion of knowledge among the people. The same ideas were expressed by French writers and statesmen of the time, and by the English after the passage of the Reform Bills of 1832 and 1867 (p. 642). With the gradual extension of the franchise to larger and larger numbers of the people, the extension of educational advantages naturally had to follow. The education of new citizens for “their political and civil duties as members of society and freemen” became a necessity, and closely followed each extension of the right to vote. In
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