A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1 - Surendranath Dasgupta (free ebook reader for android .txt) 📗

and amiability make him a veritable Bodhisattva—one of the noblest of men that I have ever seen. Like many other scholars of Bengal, I am deeply indebted to him for the encouragement that he has given me in the pursuit of my studies and researches, and my feelings of attachment and gratefulness for him are too deep for utterance.

I am much indebted to my esteemed friends Dr E.J. Thomas of the Cambridge University Library and Mr Douglas Ainslie for their kindly revising the proofs of this work, in the course of which they improved my English in many places. To the former I am also indebted for his attention to the transliteration of a large number of Sanskrit words, and also for the whole-hearted sympathy and great friendliness with which he assisted me with his advice on many points of detail, in particular the exposition of the Buddhist doctrine of the cause of rebirth owes something of its treatment to repeated discussions with him.

I also wish to express my gratefulness to my friend Mr N.K. Siddhanta, M.A., late of the Scottish Churches College, and Mademoiselle Paule Povie for the kind assistance they have rendered in preparing the index. My obligations are also due to the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press for the honour they have done me in publishing this work.

To scholars of Indian philosophy who may do me the honour of reading my book and who may be impressed with its inevitable

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shortcomings and defects, I can only pray in the words of Hemacandra:

  Pramâ@nasiddhântaviruddham atra
  Yatkiñciduktam matimândyado@sât
  Mâtsaryyam utsâryya tadâryyacittâ@h
  Prasâdam âdhâya vis'odhayantu. [Footnote ref 1]

S.D. TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

February, 1922.

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[Footnote 1: May the noble-minded scholars instead of cherishing ill feeling kindly correct whatever errors have been here committed through the dullness of my intellect in the way of wrong interpretations and misstatements.]

CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY……………………………………………..1 CHAPTER II THE VEDAS, BRÂHMA@NAS AND THEIR PHILOSOPHY

 1 The Vedas and their antiquity……………………………10
 2 The place of the Vedas in the Hindu mind………………….10
 3 Classification of the Vedic literature……………………11
 4 The Sa@mhitâs………………………………………….12
 5 The Brâhma@nas…………………………………………13
 6 The Âra@nyakas…………………………………………14
 7 The @Rg-Veda, its civilization…………………………..14
 8 The Vedic gods…………………………………………16
 9 Polytheism, Henotheism, and Monotheism……………………17
10 Growth of a Monotheistic tendency; Prajâpati, Vis'vakarma…..19
11 Brahma………………………………………………..20
12 Sacrifice; the First Rudiments of the Law of Karma…………21
13 Cosmogony—Mythological and Philosophical…………………23
14 Eschatology; the Doctrine of Âtman……………………….25
15 Conclusion…………………………………………….26

CHAPTER III THE EARLIER UPANI@SADS (700 B.C.-600 B.C.)

 1 The place of the Upani@sads in Vedic literature……………28
 2 The names of the Upani@sads; Non-Brahmanic influence……….30
 3 Brâhma@nas and the Early Upani@sads………………………31
 4 The meaning of the word Upani@sad………………………..38
 5 The composition and growth of diverse Upani@sads…………..38
 6 Revival of Upani@sad studies in modern times………………39
 7 The Upani@sads and their interpretations………………….41
 8 The quest after Brahman: the struggle and the failures……..42
 9 Unknowability of Brahman and the Negative Method…………..44
10 The Âtman doctrine……………………………………..45
11 Place of Brahman in the Upani@sads……………………….48
12 The World……………………………………………..51
13 The World-Soul…………………………………………52
14 The Theory of Causation…………………………………52
15 Doctrine of Transmigration………………………………53
16 Emancipation…………………………………………..58

CHAPTER IV GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE SYSTEMS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

1 In what sense is a History of Indian Philosophy possible?……62 2 Growth of the Philosophic Literature………………………65 3 The Indian systems of Philosophy………………………….67 4 Some fundamental points of agreement………………………71 1 The Karma theory…………………………………..71 2 The Doctrine of Mukti………………………………74 3 The Doctrine of Soul……………………………….75 5 The Pessimistic Attitude towards the World and the Optimistic Faith in the end………………………………………..75 6 Unity in Indian Sâdhana (philosophical, religious and ethical endeavours)…………………………………………….77

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CHAPTER V BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY

 1 The State of Philosophy in India before Buddha……………..78
 2 Buddha: his Life………………………………………..81
 3 Early Buddhist Literature………………………………..82
 4 The Doctrine of Causal Connection of early Buddhism…………84
 5 The Khandhas……………………………………………93
 6 Avijjâ and Âsava………………………………………..99
 7 Sîla and Samâdhi……………………………………….100
 8 Kamma…………………………………………………106
 9 Upani@sads and Buddhism…………………………………109
10 The Schools of Theravâda Buddhism………………………..112
11 Mahâyânism…………………………………………….125
12 The Tathatâ Philosophy of As'vagho@sa (80 A.D.)……………129
13 The Mâdhyamika or the Sûnyavâda school—Nihilism…………..138
14 Uncompromising Idealism or the School of Vijñânavâda Buddhism.145
15 Sautrântika theory of Perception…………………………151
16 Sautrântika theory of Inference………………………….155
17 The Doctrine of Momentariness……………………………158
18 The Doctrine of Momentariness and the Doctrine of Causal
 Efficiency (Arthakriyâkâritva)…………………………….163
19 Some Ontological Problems on which the Different Indian Systems
 diverged………………………………………………..164
20 Brief Survey of the Evolution of Buddhist Thought………….166

CHAPTER VI THE JAINA PHILOSOPHY

1 The Origin of Jainism…………………………………..169 2 Two Sects of Jainism……………………………………170 3 The Canonical and other Literature of the Jains……………171 4 Some General Characteristics of the Jains…………………172 5 Life of Mahâvîra……………………………………….173 6 The Fundamental Ideas of Jaina Ontology…………………..173 7 The Doctrine of Relative Pluralism (Anekântavâda)………….175 8 The Doctrine of Nâyas…………………………………..176 9 The Doctrine of Syâdvâda………………………………..179 10 Knowledge, its value for us……………………………..181 11 Theory of Perception……………………………………183 12 Non-Perceptual knowledge………………………………..185 13 Knowledge as Revelation…………………………………186 14 The Jîvas……………………………………………..188 15 Karma Theory…………………………………………..190 16 Karma, Âsrava and Nirjarâ……………………………….192 17 Pudgala……………………………………………….195 18 Dharma, Adharma, Âkâs'a…………………………………197 19 Kâla and Samaya………………………………………..198 20 Jaina Cosmography………………………………………199 21 Jaina Yoga…………………………………………….199 22 Jaina Atheism………………………………………….203 23 Mok@sa (emancipation)…………………………………..207

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CHAPTER VII THE KAPILA AND THE PÂTAÑJALA SÂ@MKHYA (YOGA)

1 A Review………………………………………………208 2 The Germs of Sâ@mkhya in the Upani@sads…………………..211 3 Sâ@mkhya and Yoga Literature…………………………….212 4 An Early School of Sâ@mkhya……………………………..213 5 Sâ@mkhya kârikâ, Sâ@mkhya sûtra, Vâcaspati Mis'ra and Vijñâna Bhiksu………………………………………………….222 6 Yoga and Patañjali……………………………………..226 7 The Sâ@mkhya and the Yoga doctrine of Soul or Purusa……….238 8 Thought and Matter……………………………………..241 9 Feelings, the Ultimate Substances………………………..242 10 The Gunas……………………………………………..243 11 Prak@@rti and its evolution……………………………..245 12 Pralaya and the disturbance of the Prak@rti Equilibrium…….247 13 Mahat and Ahamkâra……………………………………..248 14 The Tanmâtras and the Paramâñus………………………….251 15 Principle of Causation and Conservation of Energy………….254 16 Change as the formation of new collocations……………….255 17 Causation as Satkâryavâda (the theory that the effect potentially exists before it is generated by the movement of the cause)……………………………………………257 18 Sâ@mkhya Atheism and Yoga Theism…………………………258 19 Buddhi and Purusa………………………………………259 20 The Cognitive Process and some characteristics of Citta…….261 21 Sorrow and its Dissolution………………………………264 22 Citta…………………………………………………268 23 Yoga Purificatory Practices (Parikarma)…………………..270 24 The Yoga Meditation…………………………………….271

CHAPTER VIII THE NYÂYA-VAISESIKA PHILOSOPHY

1 Criticism of Buddhism and Sâ@mkhya from the Nyâya standpoint…274 2 Nyâya and Vais'e@sika sûtras……………………………..276 3 Does Vais'e@sika represent an old school of Mîmâ@msâ?……….280 4 Philosophy in the Vais'e@sika sûtras………………………285 5 Philosophy in the Nyâya sûtras……………………………294 6 Philosophy of Nyâya sûtras and Vais'e@sika sûtras…………..301 7 The Vais'e@sika and Nyâya Literature………………………305 8 The main doctrine of the Nyâya-Vais'e@sika Philosophy……….310 9 The six Padârthas: Dravya, Gu@na, Karma, Sâmânya, Vis'e@sa, Samavâya………………………………………………..313 10 The Theory of Causation…………………………………319 11 Dissolution (Pralaya) and Creation (S@r@s@ti)……………..323 12 Proof of the Existence of Is'vara………………………..325 13 The Nyâya-Vais'e@sika Physics……………………………326 14 The Origin of Knowledge (Pramâ@na)……………………….330 15 The four Pramâ@nas of Nyâya……………………………..332 16 Perception (Pratyak@sa)…………………………………333 17 Inference……………………………………………..343 18 Upamâna and S'abda……………………………………..354 19 Negation in Nyâya-Vais'e@sika……………………………355 20 The necessity of the Acquirement of debating devices for the seeker of Salvation…………………………………..360 21 The Doctrine of Soul……………………………………362 22 Îs'vara and Salvation…………………………………..363

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CHAPTER IX MÎMÂ@MSÂ PHILOSOPHY

1 A Comparative Review…………………………………….367 2 The Mîmâ@msâ Literature………………………………….369 3 The Parata@h-prâmâ@nya doctrine of Nyâya and the Svata@h-prâmâ@nya doctrine of Mîmâ@msâ……………………..372 4 The place of Sense-organs in Perception……………………375 5 Indeterminate and Determinate Perception…………………..378 6 Some Ontological Problems connected with the Doctrine of Perception………………………………………………379 7 The Nature of Knowledge………………………………….382 8 The Psychology of Illusion……………………………….384 9 Inference………………………………………………387 10 Upamâna, Arthâpatti…………………………………….391 11 S'abda-pramâ@na………………………………………..394 12 The Pramâ@na of Non-perception (anupalabdhi)………………397 13 Self, Salvation, and God………………………………..399 14 Mîmâ@msâ as Philosophy and Mimâ@msâ as Ritualism…………..403

CHAPTER X THE S'A@NKARA SCHOOL OF VEDÂNTA

1 Comprehension of the Philosophical Issues more essential than the Dialectic of Controversy………………………………406 2 The philosophical situation: a Review……………………..408 3 Vedânta Literature………………………………………418 4 Vedânta in Gau@dapâda……………………………………420 5 Vedânta and Sa@nkara (788-820 A.D.)……………………….429 6 The main idea of the Vedânta philosophy……………………439 7 In what sense is the world-appearance false?……………….443 8 The nature of the world-appearance, phenomena………………445 9 The Definition of Ajñâna (nescience)………………………452 10 Ajñâna established by Perception and Inference…………….454 11 Locus and Object of Ajñâna, Aha@mkâra and Anta@hkara@na…….457 12 Anirvâcyavâda and the Vedânta dialectic…………………..461 13 The Theory of Causation…………………………………465 14 Vedânta theory of Perception and Inference………………..470 15 Âtman, Jîva, Is'vara, Ekajîvavâda and D@r@s@tis@r@s@tivâda….474 16 Vedânta theory of Illusion………………………………485 17 Vedânta Ethics and Vedânta Emancipation…………………..489 18 Vedânta and other Indian systems…………………………492

INDEX……………………………………………………495

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY

The achievements of the ancient Indians in the field of philosophy are but very imperfectly known to the world at large, and it is unfortunate that the condition is no better even in India. There is a small body of Hindu scholars and ascetics living a retired life in solitude, who are well acquainted with the subject, but they do not know English and are not used to modern ways of thinking, and the idea that they ought to write books in vernaculars in order to popularize the subject does not appeal to them. Through the activity of various learned bodies and private individuals both in Europe and in India large numbers of philosophical works in Sanskrit and Pâli have been published, as well as translations of a few of them, but there has been as yet little systematic attempt on the part of scholars to study them and judge their value. There are hundreds of Sanskrit works on most of the systems of Indian thought and scarcely a hundredth part of them has been translated. Indian modes of expression, entailing difficult technical philosophical terms are so different from those of European thought, that they can hardly ever be accurately translated. It is therefore very difficult for a person unacquainted with Sanskrit to understand Indian philosophical thought in its true bearing from translations. Pâli is a much easier language than Sanskrit, but a knowledge of Pâli is helpful in understanding only the earliest school of Buddhism, when it was in its semi-philosophical stage. Sanskrit is generally regarded as a difficult language. But no one from an acquaintance with Vedic or ordinary literary Sanskrit can have any idea of the difficulty of the logical and abstruse parts of Sanskrit philosophical literature. A man who can easily understand the Vedas. the Upani@sads, the Purânas, the Law Books and the literary works, and is also well acquainted with European philosophical thought, may find it literally impossible to understand even small portions of a work of advanced Indian logic, or the dialectical Vedânta. This is due to two reasons, the use of technical terms and of great condensation in expression, and the hidden allusions to doctrines of other systems. The

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tendency to conceiving philosophical problems in a clear and unambiguous manner is an important feature of Sanskrit thought, but from the ninth century onwards, the habit of using clear, definite, and precise expressions, began to develop in a very striking manner, and as a result of that a large number of technical terms began to be invented. These terms are seldom properly explained, and it is presupposed that the reader who wants to read the works should have a knowledge of them. Any one in olden times who took to the study of any system of philosophy, had to do so with a teacher, who explained those terms to him. The teacher himself had got it from his teacher, and he from his. There was no tendency to popularize philosophy, for the idea then prevalent was that only the chosen few who had otherwise shown their fitness, deserved to become fit students (adhikârî) of philosophy, under the direction of a teacher. Only those who had the grit and high moral strength to devote their whole life to the true understanding of philosophy and the rebuilding of life in accordance with the high truths of philosophy were allowed to study it.

Another difficulty which a beginner will meet is this, that sometimes the same technical terms are used in extremely different senses in different systems. The student must know the meaning of each technical term with reference to the system in which it occurs, and no dictionary will enlighten him much about the matter [Footnote ref 1]. He will have to pick them up as he advances and finds them used. Allusions to the doctrines of other systems and their refutations during the discussions of similar doctrines in any particular system of thought are often very puzzling even to a well-equipped reader; for he cannot be expected to know all the doctrines of other systems without going through them, and so it often becomes difficult to follow the series of answers and refutations which are poured forth in the course of these discussions. There are two important compendiums in Sanskrit giving a summary of some of the principal systems of Indian thought, viz. the Sarvadars'anasa@mgraha, and the @Sa@ddars'anasamuccaya of Haribhadra with the commentary of Gu@naratna; but the former is very sketchy and can throw very little light on the understanding of the ontological or epistemological doctrines of any of the systems. It has been translated by Cowell and Gough, but I

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[Footnote 1: Recently a very able Sanskrit dictionary of technical philosophical terms called Nyâyakos'a has been prepared by M.M. Bhîmâcârya Jhalkikar, Bombay, Govt. Press.]

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am afraid the translation may not be found very intelligible. Gu@naratna's commentary is excellent so far as Jainism is concerned, and it sometimes gives interesting information about other systems, and also supplies us with some short bibliographical notices, but it seldom goes on to explain the epistemological or ontological doctrines or discussions which are so necessary