A Short History of Astronomy - Arthur Berry (read along books .txt) 📗
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69. A few minor discoveries in astronomy belong to this or to a slightly later period and may conveniently be dealt with here.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), who was not only a great painter and sculptor, but also an anatomist, engineer, mechanician, physicist, and mathematician, was the first to explain correctly the dim illumination seen over the rest of the surface of the moon when the bright part is only a thin crescent. He pointed out that when the moon was nearly new the half of the earth which was then illuminated by the sun was turned nearly directly towards the moon, and that the moon was in consequence illuminated slightly by this earthshine, just as we are by moonshine. The explanation is interesting in itself, and was also of some value as shewing an analogy between the earth and moon which tended to break down the supposed barrier between terrestrial and celestial bodies (chapter VI., § 119).
Jerome Fracastor (1483-1543) and Peter Apian (1495-1552), two voluminous writers on astronomy, made observations of comets of some interest, both noticing that a comet’s tail continually points away from the sun, as the comet changes its position, a fact which has been used in modern times to throw some light on the structure of comets (chapter XIII., § 304).
Peter Nonius (1492-1577) deserves mention on account of the knowledge of twilight which he possessed; several problems as to the duration of twilight, its variation in different latitudes, etc., were correctly solved by him; but otherwise his numerous books are of no great interest.44
A new determination of the size of the earth, the first since the time of the Caliph Al Mamun (§ 57), was made about 1528 by the French doctor John Fernel (1497-1558), who arrived at a result the error in which (less than 1 per cent.) was far less than could reasonably have been expected from the rough methods employed.
The life of Regiomontanus overlapped that of Coppernicus by three years; the four writers last named were nearly his contemporaries; and we may therefore be said to have come to the end of the comparatively stationary period dealt with in this chapter.
COPPERNICUS.
“But in this our age, one rare witte (seeing the continuall errors that from time to time more and more continually have been discovered, besides the infinite absurdities in their Theoricks, which they have been forced to admit that would not confesse any Mobilitie in the ball of the Earth) hath by long studye, paynfull practise, and rare invention delivered a new Theorick or Model of the world, shewing that the Earth resteth not in the Center of the whole world or globe of elements, which encircled and enclosed in the Moone’s orbit, and together with the whole globe of mortality is carried yearly round about the Sunne, which like a king in the middest of all, rayneth and giveth laws of motion to all the rest, sphaerically dispersing his glorious beames of light through all this sacred coelestiall Temple.”
Thomas Digges, 1590.
70. The growing interest in astronomy shewn by the work of such men as Regiomontanus was one of the early results in the region of science of the great movement of thought to different aspects of which are given the names of Revival of Learning, Renaissance, and Reformation, The movement may be regarded primarily as a general quickening of intelligence and of interest in matters of thought and knowledge. The invention of printing early in the 15th century, the stimulus to the study of the Greek authors, due in part to the scholars who were driven westwards after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453), and the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492, all helped on a movement the beginning of which has to be looked for much earlier.
Every stimulus to the intelligence naturally brings with it a tendency towards inquiry into opinions received through tradition and based on some great authority. The effective discovery and the study of Greek philosophers other than Aristotle naturally did much to shake the supreme authority of that great philosopher, just as the Reformers shook the authority of the Church by pointing out what they considered to be inconsistencies between its doctrines and those of the Bible. At first there was little avowed opposition to the principle that truth was to be derived from some authority, rather than to be sought independently by the light of reason; the new scholars replaced the authority of Aristotle by that of Plato or of Greek and Roman antiquity in general, and the religious Reformers replaced the Church by the Bible. Naturally, however, the conflict between authorities produced in some minds scepticism as to the principle of authority itself; when freedom of judgment had to be exercised to the extent of deciding between authorities, it was but a step further—a step, it is true, that comparatively few took—to use the individual judgment on the matter at issue itself.
In astronomy the conflict between authorities had already arisen, partly in connection with certain divergencies between Ptolemy and Aristotle, partly in connection with the various astronomical tables which, though on substantially the same lines, differed in minor points. The time was therefore ripe for some fundamental criticism of the traditional astronomy, and for its reconstruction on a new basis.
Such a fundamental change was planned and worked out by the great astronomer whose work has next to be considered.
71. Nicholas Coppernic or Coppernicus45 was born on February 19th, 1473, in a house still pointed out in the little trading town of Thorn on the Vistula. Thorn now lies just within the eastern frontier of the present kingdom of Prussia; in the time of Coppernicus it lay in a region over which the King of Poland had some sort of suzerainty, the precise nature of which was a continual subject of quarrel between him, the citizens, and the order of Teutonic knights, who claimed a good deal of the neighbouring country. The astronomer’s father (whose name was most commonly written Koppernigk) was a merchant who came to Thorn from Cracow, then the capital of Poland, in 1462. Whether Coppernicus should be counted as a Pole or as a German is an intricate question, over which his biographers have fought at great length and with some acrimony, but which is not worth further discussion here.
Nicholas, after the death of his father in 1483, was under the care of his uncle, Lucas Watzelrode, afterwards bishop of the neighbouring diocese of Ermland, and was destined by him from a very early date for an ecclesiastical career. He attended the school at Thorn, and at the age of 17 entered the University of Cracow. Here he seems to have first acquired (or shewn) a decided taste for astronomy and mathematics, subjects in which he probably received help from Albert Brudzewski, who had a great reputation as a learned and stimulating teacher; the lecture lists of the University show that the comparatively modern treatises of Purbach and Regiomontanus (chapter III., § 68) were the standard textbooks used. Coppernicus had no intention of graduating at Cracow, and probably left after three years (1494). During the next year or two he lived partly at home, partly at his uncle’s palace at Heilsberg, and spent some of the time in an unsuccessful candidature for a canonry at Frauenburg, the cathedral city of his uncle’s diocese.
The next nine or ten years of his life (from 1496 to 1505 or 1506) were devoted to studying in Italy, his stay there being broken only by a short visit to Frauenburg in 1501. He worked chiefly at Bologna and Padua, but graduated at Ferrara, and also spent some time at Rome, where his astronomical knowledge evidently made a favourable impression. Although he was supposed to be in Italy primarily with a view to studying law and medicine, it is evident that much of his best work was being put into mathematics and astronomy, while he also paid a good deal of attention to Greek.
To face p. 94.
During his absence he was appointed (about 1497) to a canonry at Frauenburg, and at some uncertain date be also received a sinecure ecclesiastical appointment at Breslau.
72. On returning to Frauenburg from Italy Coppernicus almost immediately obtained fresh leave of absence, and joined his uncle at Heilsberg, ostensibly as his medical adviser and really as his companion.
It was probably during the quiet years spent at Heilsberg that he first put into shape his new ideas about astronomy, and wrote the first draft of his book. He kept the manuscript by him, revising and rewriting from time to time, partly from a desire to make his work as perfect as possible, partly from complete indifference to reputation, coupled with dislike of the controversy to which the publication of his book would almost certainly give rise. In 1509 he published at Cracow his first book, a Latin translation of a set of Greek letters by Theophylactus, interesting as being probably the first translation from the Greek ever published in Poland or the adjacent districts. In 1512, on the death of his uncle, he finally settled in Frauenburg, in a set of rooms which he occupied, with short intervals, for the next 31 years. Once fairly in residence, he took his share in conducting the business of the Chapter: he acted, for example, more than once as their representative in various quarrels with the King of Poland and the Teutonic knights; in 1523 he was general administrator of the diocese for a few months after the death of the bishop; and for two periods, amounting altogether to six years (1516-1519 and 1520-1521), he lived at the castle of Allenstein, administering some of the outlying property of the Chapter. In 1521 he was commissioned to draw up a statement of the grievances of the Chapter against the Teutonic knights for presentation to the Prussian Estates, and in the following year wrote a memorandum on the debased and confused state of the coinage in the district, a paper which was also laid before the Estates, and was afterwards rewritten in Latin at the special request of the bishop. He also gave a certain amount of medical advice to his friends as well as to the poor of Frauenburg, though he never practised regularly as a physician; but notwithstanding these various occupations it is probable that a very large part of his time during the last 30 years of his life was devoted to astronomy.
73. We are so accustomed to associate the revival of astronomy, as of other branches of natural science, with increased care in the collection of observed facts, and to think of Coppernicus as the chief agent in the revival, that it is worth while here to emphasise the fact that he was in no sense a great observer. His instruments, which were mostly of his own construction, were far inferior to those of Nassir Eddin and of Ulugh Begh (chapter III., §§ 62, 63), and not even as good as those which he could have procured if he had wished from the workshops of Nürnberg; his observations were not at all numerous (only 27, which occur in his book, and a dozen or two besides being known), and he appears to have made no serious attempt to secure great accuracy. His determination of the position of one star, which was extensively used by him as a standard of reference and was therefore of special importance, was in error to the extent of nearly 40′ (more than the apparent breadth of the sun or moon), an error
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