On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures - Charles Babbage (interesting books to read in english .TXT) 📗

Chapter 22

On the Causes and Consequences of Large Factories

 

263. On examining the analysis which has been given in

chapter XIX of the operations in the art of pinmaking, it will

be observed, that ten individuals are employed in it, and also

that the time occupied in executing the several processes is very

different. In order, however, to render more simple the reasoning

which follows, it will be convenient to suppose that each of the

seven processes there described requires an equal quantity of

time. This being supposed, it is at once apparent, that, to

conduct an establishment for pinmaking most profitably, the

number of persons employed must be a multiple of ten. For if a

person with small means has only sufficient capital to enable him

to employ half that number of persons, they cannot each of them

constantly adhere to the execution of the same process; and if a

manufacturer employs any number not a multiple of ten, a similar

result must ensue with respect to some portion of them. The same

reflection constantly presents itself on examining any

well-arranged factory. In that of Mr Mordan, the patentee of the

ever-pointed pencils, one room is devoted to some of the

processes by which steel pens are manufactured. Six fly-presses

are here constantly at work; in the first a sheet of thin steel

is brought by the workman under the die which at each blow cuts

out a flat piece of the metal, having the form intended for the

pen. Two other workmen are employed in placing these flat pieces

under two other presses, in which a steel chisel cuts the slit.

Three other workmen occupy other presses, in which the pieces so

prepared receive their semi-cylindrical form. The longer time

required for adjusting the small pieces in the two latter

operations renders them less rapid in execution than the first;

so that two workmen are fully occupied in slitting, and three in

bending the flat pieces, which one man can punch out of the sheet

of steel. If, therefore, it were necessary to enlarge this

factory, it is clear that twelve or eighteen presses would be

worked with more economy than any number not a multiple of six.

 

The same reasoning extends to every manufacture which is

conducted upon the principle of the division of labour, and we

arrive at this general conclusion: When the number of processes

into which it is most advantageous to divide it, and the number

of individuals to be employed in it, are ascertained, then all

factories which do not employ a direct multiple of this latter

number, will produce the article at a greater cost. This

principle ought always to be kept in view in great

establishments, although it is quite impossible, even with the

best division of the labour, to attend to it rigidly in practice.

The proportionate number of the persons who possess the greatest

skill, is of course to be first attended to. That exact ratio

which is more profitable for a factory employing a hundred

workmen, may not be quite the best where there are five hundred;

and the arrangements of both may probably admit of variations,

without materially increasing the cost of their produce. But it

is quite certain that no individual, nor in the case of

pinmaking could any five individuals, ever hope to compete with

an extensive establishment. Hence arises one cause of the great

size of manufacturing establishments, which have increased with

the progress of civilization. Other circumstances, however,

contribute to the same end, and arise also from the same cause—

the division of labour.

 

264. The material out of which the manufactured article is

produced, must, in the several stages of its progress, be

conveyed from one operator to the next in succession: this can be

done at least expense when they are all working in the same

establishment. If the weight of the material is considerable,

this reason acts with additional force; but even where it is

light, the danger arising from frequent removal may render it

desirable to have all the processes carried on in the same

building. In the cutting and polishing of glass this is the case;

whilst in the art of needlemaking several of the processes are

carried on in the cottages of the workmen. It is, however, clear

that the latter plan, which is attended with some advantages to

the family of the workmen, can be adopted only where there exists

a sure and quick method of knowing that the work has been well

done, and that the whole of the materials given out have been

really employed.

 

265. The inducement to contrive machines for any process of

manufacture increases with the demand for the article; and the

introduction of machinery, on the other hand, tends to increase

the quantity produced and to lead to the establishment of large

factories. An illustration of these principles may be found in

the history of the manufacture of patent net.

 

The first machines for weaving this article were very

expensive, costing from a thousand to twelve or thirteen hundred

pounds. The possessor of one of these, though it greatly

increased the quantity he could produce, was nevertheless unable,

when working eight hours a day, to compete with the old methods.

This arose from the large capital invested in the machinery; but

he quickly perceived that with the same expense of fixed capital,

and a small addition to his circulating capital, he could work

the machine during the whole twenty-four hours. The profits thus

realized soon induced other persons to direct their attention to

the improvement of those machines; and the price was greatly

reduced, at the same time that the rapidity of production of the

patent net was increased. But if machines be kept working through

the twenty-four hours, it is necessary that some person shall

attend to admit the workmen at the time they relieve each other;

and whether the porter or other servant so employed admit one

person or twenty, his rest will be equally disturbed. It will

also be necessary occasionally to adjust or repair the machine;

and this can be done much better by a workman accustomed to

machine-making, than by the person who uses it. Now, since the

good performance and the duration of machines depend to a very

great extent upon correcting every shake or imperfection in their

parts as soon as they appear, the prompt attention of a workman

resident on the spot will considerably reduce the expenditure

arising from the wear and tear of the machinery. But in the case

of single lace frame, or a single loom, this would be too

expensive a plan. Here then arises another circumstance which

tends to enlarge the extent of a factory. It ought to consist of

such a number of machines as shall occupy the whole time of one

workman in keeping them in order: if extended beyond that number,

the same principle of economy would point out the necessity of

doubling or tripling the number of machines, in order to employ

the whole time of two or three skilful workmen.

 

266. Where one portion of the workman’s labour consists in

the exertion of mere physical force, as in weaving and in many

similar arts, it will soon occur to the manufacturer, that if

that part were executed by a steamengine, the same man might, in

the case of weaving, attend to two or more looms at once; and,

since we already suppose that one or more operative engineers

have been employed, the number of his looms may be so arranged

that their time shall be fully occupied in keeping the

steamengine and the looms in order. One of the first results

will be, that the looms can be driven by the engine nearly twice

as fast as before: and as each man, when relieved from bodily

labour, can attend to two looms, one workman can now make almost

as much cloth as four. This increase of producing power is,

however, greater than that which really took place at first; the

velocity of some of the parts of the loom being limited by the

strength of the thread, and the quickness with which it commences

its motion: but an improvement was soon made, by which the motion

commenced slowly, and gradually acquired greater velocity than it

was safe to give it at once; and the speed was thus increased

from 100 to about 120 strokes per minute.

 

267. Pursuing the same principles, the manufactory becomes

gradually so enlarged, that the expense of lighting during the

night amounts to a considerable sum; and as there are already

attached to the establishment persons who are up all night, and

can therefore constantly attend to it, and also engineers to make

and keep in repair any machinery, the addition of an apparatus

for making gas to light the factory leads to a new extension, at

the same time that it contributes, by diminishing the expense of

lighting, and the risk of accidents from fire, to reduce the cost

of manufacturing.

 

268. Long before a factory has reached this extent, it will

have been found necessary to establish an accountant’s

department, with clerks to pay the workmen, and to see that they

arrive at their stated times; and this department must be in

communication with the agents who purchase the raw produce, and

with those who sell the manufactured article.

 

269. We have seen that the application of the division of

labour tends to produce cheaper articles; that it thus increases

the demand; and gradually, by the effect of competition, or by

the hope of increased gain, that it causes large capitals to be

embarked in extensive factories. Let us now examine the influence

of this accumulation of capital directed to one object. In the

first place, it enables the most important principle on which the

advantages of the division of labour depends to be carried almost

to its extreme limits: not merely is the precise amount of skill

purchased which is necessary for the execution of each process,

but throughout every stage—from that in which the raw material

is procured, to that by which the finished produce is conveyed

into the hands of the consumer—the same economy of skill

prevails. The quantity of work produced by a given number of

people is greatly augmented by such an extended arrangement; and

the result is necessarily a great reduction in the cost of the

article which is brought to market.

 

270. Amongst the causes which tend to the cheap production of

any article, and which are connected with the employment of

additional capital, may be mentioned, the care