A Short History of Astronomy - Arthur Berry (read along books .txt) 📗

The method of treating the elements of the elliptic orbits as variable is specially suitable for secular inequalities; but for periodic inequalities it is generally better to treat the body as being disturbed from an elliptic path, and to study these deviations.

“The simplest way of regarding these various perturbations consists in imagining a planet moving in accordance with the laws of elliptic motion, on an ellipse the elements of which vary by insensible degrees; and to conceive at the same time that the true planet oscillates round this fictitious planet in a very small orbit the nature of which depends on its periodic perturbations.”147

The former method, due as we have seen in great measure to Euler, was perfected and very generally used by Lagrange, and often bears his name.

243. It was at first naturally supposed that the slow alteration in the rates of the motions of Jupiter and Saturn (§§ 235, 236, and chapter X., § 204) was a secular inequality; Lagrange in 1766 made an attempt to explain it on this basis which, though still unsuccessful, represented the observations better than Euler’s work. Laplace in his first paper on secular inequalities (1773) found by the use of a more complete analysis that the secular alterations in the rates of motions of Jupiter and Saturn appeared to vanish entirely, and attempted to explain the motions by the hypothesis, so often used by astronomers when in difficulties, that a comet had been the cause.

In 1773 John Henry Lambert (1728-1777) discovered from a study of observations that, whereas Halley had found Saturn to be moving more slowly than in ancient times, it was now moving faster than in Halley’s time—a conclusion which pointed to a fluctuating or periodic cause of some kind.

Finally in 1784 Laplace arrived at the true explanation. Lagrange had observed in 1776 that if the times of revolution of two planets are exactly proportional to two whole numbers, then part of the periodic disturbing force produces a secular change in their motions, acting continually in the same direction; though he pointed out that such a case did not occur in the solar system. If moreover the times of revolution are nearly proportional to two whole numbers (neither of which is very large), then part of the periodic disturbing force produces an irregularity that is not strictly secular, but has a very long period; and a disturbing force so small as to be capable of being ordinarily overlooked may, if it is of this kind, be capable of producing a considerable effect.148 Now Jupiter and Saturn revolve round the sun in about 4,333 days and 10,759 days respectively; five times the former number is 21,665, twice the latter is 21,518, which is very little less. Consequently the exceptional case occurs; and on working it out Laplace found an appreciable inequality with a period of about 900 years, which explained the observations satisfactorily.

The inequalities of this class, of which several others have been discovered, are known as long inequalities, and may be regarded as connecting links between secular inequalities and periodical inequalities of the usual kind.

244. The discovery that the observed inequality of Jupiter and Saturn was not secular may be regarded as the first step in a remarkable series of investigations on secular inequalities carried out by Lagrange and Laplace, for the most part between 1773 and 1784, leading to some of the most interesting and general results in the whole of gravitational astronomy. The two astronomers, though living respectively in Berlin and Paris, were in constant communication, and scarcely any important advance was made by the one which was not at once utilised and developed by the other.

The central problem was that of the secular alterations in the elements of a planet’s orbit regarded as a varying ellipse. Three of these elements, the axis of the ellipse, its eccentricity, and the inclination of its plane to a fixed plane (usually the ecliptic), are of much greater importance than the other three. The first two are the elements on which the size and shape of the orbit depend, and the first also determines (by Kepler’s Third Law) the period of revolution and average rate of motion of the planet;149 the third has an important influence on the mutual relations of the two planets. The other three elements are chiefly of importance for periodical inequalities.

It should be noted moreover that the eccentricities and inclinations were in all cases (except those specially mentioned) considered as small quantities; and thus all the investigations were approximate, these quantities and the disturbing forces themselves being treated as small.

245. The basis of the whole series of investigations was a long paper published by Lagrange in 1766, in which he explained the method of variation of elements, and gave formulae connecting their rates of change with the disturbing forces.

In his paper of 1773 Laplace found that what was true of Jupiter and Saturn had a more general application, and proved that in the case of any planet, disturbed by any other, the axis was not only undergoing no secular change at the present time, but could not have altered appreciably since “the time when astronomy began to be cultivated.”

In the next year Lagrange obtained an expression for the secular change in the inclination, valid for all time. When this was applied to the case of Jupiter and Saturn, which on account of their superiority in size and great distance from the other planets could be reasonably treated as forming with the sun a separate system, it appeared that the changes in the inclinations would always be of a periodic nature, so that they could never pass beyond certain fixed limits, not differing much from the existing values. The like result held for the system formed by the sun, Venus, the earth, and Mars. Lagrange noticed moreover that there were cases, which, as he said, fortunately did not appear to exist in the system of the world, in which, on the contrary, the inclinations might increase indefinitely. The distinction depended on the masses of the bodies in question; and although all the planetary masses were somewhat uncertain, and those assumed by Lagrange for Venus and Mars almost wholly conjectural, it did not appear that any reasonable alteration in the estimated masses would affect the general conclusion arrived at.

Two years later (1775) Laplace, much struck by the method which Lagrange had used, applied it to the discussion of the secular variations of the eccentricity, and found that these were also of a periodic nature, so that the eccentricity also could not increase or decrease indefinitely.

In the next year Lagrange, in a remarkable paper of only 14 pages, proved that whether the eccentricities and inclinations were treated as small or not, and whatever the masses of the planets might be, the changes in the length of the axis of any planetary orbit were necessarily all periodic, so that for all time the length of the axis could only fluctuate between certain definite limits. This result was, however, still based on the assumption that the disturbing forces could be treated as small.

Next came a series of five papers published between 1781 and 1784 in which Lagrange summed up his earlier work, revised and improved his methods, and applied them to periodical inequalities and to various other problems.

Lastly in 1784 Laplace, in the same paper in which he explained the long inequality of Jupiter and Saturn, established by an extremely simple method two remarkable relations between the eccentricities and inclinations of the planets, or any similar set of bodies.

The first relation is:—

If the mass of each planet be multiplied by the square root of the axis of its orbit and by the square of the eccentricity, then the sum of these products for all the planets is invariable save for periodical inequalities.

The second is precisely similar, save that eccentricity is replaced by inclination.150

The first of these propositions establishes the existence of what may be called a stock or fund of eccentricity shared by the planets of the solar system. If the eccentricity of any one orbit increases, that of some other orbit must undergo a corresponding decrease. Also the fund can never be overdrawn. Moreover observation shews that the eccentricities of all the planetary orbits are small; consequently the whole fund is small, and the share owned at any time by any one planet must be small.151 Consequently the eccentricity of the orbit of a planet of which the mass and distance from the sun are considerable can never increase much, and a similar conclusion holds for the inclinations of the various orbits.

One remarkable characteristic of the solar system is presupposed in these two propositions; namely, that all the planets revolve round the sun in the same direction, which to an observer supposed to be on the north side of the orbits appears to be contrary to that in which the hands of a clock move. If any planet moved in the opposite direction, the corresponding parts of the eccentricity and inclination funds would have to be subtracted instead of being added; and there would be nothing to prevent the fund from being overdrawn.

A somewhat similar restriction is involved in Laplace’s earlier results as to the impossibility of permanent changes in the eccentricities, though a system might exist in which his result would still be true if one or more of its members revolved in a different direction from the rest, but in this case there would have to be certain restrictions on the proportions of the orbits not required in the other case.

Stated briefly, the results established by the two astronomers were that the changes in axis, eccentricity, and inclination of any planetary orbit are all permanently restricted within certain definite limits. The perturbations caused by the planets make all these quantities undergo fluctuations of limited extent, some of which, caused by the periodic disturbing forces, go through their changes in comparatively short periods, while others, due to secular forces, require vast intervals of time for their completion.

It may thus be said that the stability of the solar system was established, as far as regards the particular astronomical causes taken into account.

Moreover, if we take the case of the earth, as an inhabited planet, any large alteration in the axis, that is in the average distance from the sun, would produce a more than proportional change in the amount of heat and light received from the sun; any great increase in the eccentricity would increase largely that part (at present very small) of our seasonal variations of heat and cold which are due to varying distance from the sun; while any change in position of the ecliptic, which was unaccompanied by a corresponding change of the equator, and had the effect of increasing the angle between the two, would largely increase the variations of temperature in the course of the year. The stability shewn to exist is therefore a guarantee against certain kinds of great climatic alterations which might seriously affect the habitability of the earth.

It is perhaps just worth while to point out that the results established by Lagrange and Laplace were mathematical consequences, obtained by processes involving the neglect of certain small quantities and therefore not perfectly rigorous, of certain definite hypotheses to which the actual conditions of the solar system bear a tolerably close resemblance. Apart from causes at present unforeseen, it is therefore not unreasonable to expect that for a very considerable period of time the motions of the actual bodies forming the solar system may be very nearly in accordance with these results; but there is no valid reason why certain disturbing causes, ignored or rejected by Laplace and Lagrange on account of