Sixteen Experimental Investigations from the Harvard Psychological Laboratory - Hugo Münsterberg (best life changing books txt) 📗
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point, with side excursions to right and left, when refreshment of
perception is needed. The balance is horizontal and not vertical.
C. A balance with variety, or without symmetry. Centers at division
point and wants sweep over long part. More concentration on short
part. Subjective activity there—an introduction of energy. A
contraction of the muscles used in active attention. Long side easier,
takes care of itself, self-poised. Line centers at division point.
Active with short division. Introduces activity, which is equivalent
to the filling that the complex figures have; in these the introduced
activity is objectified—made graphic.
D. Focal point at division point: wants the interesting things in a
picture to occupy the left (when short division is also on left).
Short division the more interesting and means greater complication.
When the pleasing division is made, eyes move first over long and then
over short. Division point the center of real reference from which
movements are made.
E. No reference to center in making judgments; hurries over center.
All portions of simple line of equal interest; but in unequal division
the short gets a non-apparent importance, for the line is then a
scheme for the representation of materials of different interest
values. When the division is too short, the imagination refuses to
give it the proportionally greater importance that it would demand.
When too long it is too near equality. In enjoying line, the division
point is fixed, with shifts of attention from side to side. An
underlying intellectual assignment of more value to short side, and
then the sense-pleasure comes; the two sides have then an equality.
F. Middle vulgar, common, prosaic; unequal lively. Prefers the
lively. Eyes rest on division point, moving to the end of long and
then of short. Ease, simplicity and restfulness are proper to the long
part of complex figures. Short part of simple line looks wider,
brighter and more important than long.
G. Unequal better than equal. Eye likes movement over long and then
over short. Subject interested only in division point. Short part
gives the æsthetic quality to the line.
H. Center not wanted. Division point the center of interest. (No
further noteworthy introspection from H, but concerning complex
figures he said that he wanted simple or the compact on the short, and
the interesting on the long.)
These introspective notes were given at different times, and any
repetitions serve only to show constancy. The subjects were usually
very certain of their introspection. In general it appears to me to
warrant these three statements: (1) That the center of interest is the
division point, whence eye-movements, or innervations involving,
perhaps, the whole motor system, are made to either side. (2) That
there is some sort of balance or equivalence obtained (a bilateral
symmetry), which is not, however, a vertical balance—that is, one of
weights pulling downwards, according to the principle of the lever.
All the subjects repudiated the suggestion of vertical balance. (3)
That the long side means ease and simplicity, and represents
graphically exactly what it means; that the short side means greater
intensity, concentration, or complexity, and that this is substituted
by the subject; the short division, unlike the long, means something
that it does not graphically represent.
So much for the relation between what is objectively given and the
significance subjectively attributed to it. There remains still the
translation into psychophysical terms. The results on the complex
figures (showing that a division may be shortened by making the
innervations on that side increasingly more involved) lend
plausibility to the interpretation that the additional significance
is, in visual terms, a greater intricacy or difficulty of
eye-movement, actual or reproduced; or, in more general terms, a
greater tension of the entire motor system. In such figures the
psychophysical conditions for our pleasure in the unequal division of
the simple horizontal line are merely graphically symbolized, not
necessarily duplicated. On page 553 I roughly suggested what occurs in
regarding the unequally divided line. More exactly, this: the long
section of the line gives a free sweep of the eyes from the division
point, the center, to the end; or again, a free innervation of the
motor system. The sweep the subject makes sure of. Then, with that as
standard, the æsthetic impulse is to secure an equal and similar
movement, from the center, in the opposite direction. It is checked,
however, by the end point of the short side. The result is the
innervation of antagonistic muscles, by which the impression is
intensified. For any given subject, then, the pleasing unequal
division is at that point which causes quantitatively equal
physiological discharges, consisting of the simple movement, on one
hand, and, on the other, the same kind of movement, compounded with
the additional innervation of the antagonists resulting from the
resistance of the end point. Since, when the characteristic movements
are being made for one side, the other is always in simultaneous
vision, the sweep receives, by contrast, further accentuation, and the
innervation of antagonists doubtless begins as soon as movement on the
short side is begun. The whole of the short movement is, therefore,
really a resultant of the tendency to sweep and this necessary
innervation of antagonists. The correlate of the equivalent
innervations is equal sensations of energy of movement coming from the
two sides. Hence the feeling of balance. Hence (from the lack of
unimpeded movement on the short side) the feeling there of
‘intensity,’ or ‘concentration,’ or ‘greater significance.’ Hence,
too, the ‘ease,’ the ‘simplicity,’ the ‘placidity’ of the long side.
As in traditional symmetry, the element of unity or identity, in
unequal division, is a repetition, in quantitative terms, on one side,
of what is given on the other. In the simple line the equal division
gives us obviously exact objective repetition, so that the
psychophysical correlates are more easily inferred, while the
unequal offers apparently no compensation. But the psychophysical
contribution of energies is not gratuitous. The function of the
increment of length on one side, which in the centrally divided line
makes the divisions equal, is assumed in unequal division by the end
point of the short side; the uniform motor innervations in the former
become, in the latter, the additional innervation of antagonists,
which gives the equality. The two are separated only in degree. The
latter may truly be called, however, a symmetry of a higher order,
because objectively the disposition of its elements is not graphically
obvious, and psychophysically, the quantitative unity is attained
through a greater variety of processes. Thus, in complex works of art,
what at first appears to be an unsymmetrical composition, is, if
beautiful, only a subtle symmetry. There is present, of course, an
arithmetically unequal division of horizontal extent, aside from the
filling. But our pleasure in this, without filling, has been seen to
be also a pleasure in symmetry. We have, then, the symmetry of equally
divided extents and of unequally divided extents. They have in common
bilateral equivalence of psychophysical processes; the nature of these
differs. In both the principle of unity is the same. The variety
through which it works is different.
*
STUDIES IN ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY.
*
HABIT FORMATION IN THE CRAWFISH CAMBARUS AFFINIS.[1]
BY ROBERT M. YERKES AND GURRY E. HUGGINS.
[1] See also Yerkes, Robert: ‘Habit-Formation in the Green
Crab, Carcinus Granulalus,’ Biological Bulletin, Vol. III.,
1902, pp. 241-244.
This paper is an account of some experiments made for the purpose of
testing the ability of the crawfish to profit by experience. It is
well known that most vertebrates are able to learn, but of the
invertebrates there are several classes which have not as yet been
tested.
The only experimental study of habit formation in a crustacean which
we have found is that of Albrecht Bethe[2] on the crab, _Carcinus
maenas_. In his excellent paper on the structure of the nervous system
of Carcinus Bethe calls attention to a few experiments which he made
to determine, as he puts it, whether the crab possesses psychic
processes. The following are the observations made by him. Experiment
I. A crab was placed in a basin which contained in its darkest corner
an Eledone (a Cephalopod). The crab at once moved into the dark
region because of its instinct to hide, and was seized by the
Eledone and drawn under its mantle. The experimenter then quickly
freed the crab from its enemy and returned it to the other end of the
basin. But again the crab returned to the dark and was seized. This
was repeated with one animal five times and with another six times
without the least evidence that the crabs profited by their
experiences with the Eledone. Experiment 2. Crabs in an aquarium
were baited with meat. The experimenter held his hand above the food
and each time the hungry crab seized it he caught the animal and
maltreated it, thus trying to teach the crabs that meat meant danger.
But as in the previous experiment several repetitions of the
experience failed to teach the crabs that the hand should be avoided.
From these observations Bethe concludes that Carcinus has no
‘psychic qualities’ (i.e., is unable to profit by experience), but
is a reflex machine.
[2] Bethe, Albrecht: ‘Das Centralnervensystem von _Carcinus
maenas_,’ II. Theil., Arch. f. mikr. Anat., Bd. 51, 1898, S.
447.Bethe’s first test is unsatisfactory because the crabs have a strong
tendency to hide from the experimenter in the darkest corner. Hence,
if an association was formed, there would necessarily be a conflict of
impulses, and the region in which the animal would remain would depend
upon the relative strengths of its fear of the experimenter and of the
Eledone. This objection is not so weighty, however, as is that which
must obviously be made to the number of observations upon which the
conclusions are based. Five or even twenty-five repetitions of such an
experiment would be an inadequate basis for the statements made by
Bethe. At least a hundred trials should have been made. The same
objection holds in case of the second experiment. In all probability
Bethe’s statements were made in the light of long and close
observation of the life habits of Carcinus; we do not wish,
therefore, to deny the value of his observations, but before accepting
his conclusions it is our purpose to make a more thorough test of the
ability of crustaceans to learn.
[Illustration: FIG. 1. Ground Plan of Labyrinth. T, triangular
compartment from which animal was started; P, partition at exit;
G, glass plate closing one exit passage. Scale 1/6.]
For determining whether the crawfish is able to learn a simple form of
the labyrinth method was employed. A wooden box (Fig. 1) 35 cm. long,
24 cm. wide and 15 cm. deep, with one end open, and at the other end
a triangular compartment which communicated with the main portion of
the box by an opening 5 cm. wide, served as an experiment box. At the
open end of this box a partition (P) 6 cm. long divided the opening
into two passages of equal width. Either of these passages could be
closed with a glass plate (G), and the subject thus forced to escape
from the box by the choice of a certain passage. This box, during the
experiments, was placed in the aquarium in which the animals lived. In
order to facilitate the movement of the crawfish toward the water, the
open end was placed on a level with the water in the aquarium, and the
other end was raised so that the box made an angle of 6°
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