Sixteen Experimental Investigations from the Harvard Psychological Laboratory - Hugo Münsterberg (best life changing books txt) 📗
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independent of material aspects of the verse and traceable to a mystic
charm of ‘thought,’ it may very well be that the unanalyzed thing lies
in just such dynamic and melodic conditions of rhythm and rhyme.
The most primitive characteristic of music is the ensemble. Savage
music is often little else than time-keeping. When the social
consciousness would express itself in speech or movement in unison,
some sort of automatic regulation is necessary. This is the beginning
of music. The free reading of verse easily passes over into singing or
chanting. When this happens, the thing most noticeable in the new form
is its regulated, automatic and somewhat rigid character. It is
stereotyped throughout. Not only are the intervals and accents fixed,
but the pitch and quality changes are now definite, sustained and
recurrent. The whole sum of the motor processes of utterance has
become coördinated and regulated. Along with this precision of all the
movements comes a tendency to beat a new rhythm. This accompanying
rhythm is simpler and broader in character; it is a kind of long swell
on which the speech movements ripple. This second rhythm may express
itself in a new movement of hand, head, foot or body; when it has
become more conscious, as in patting time to a dance or chant, it
develops complicated forms, and a third rhythm may appear beside it,
to mark the main stresses of the two processes. The negro patting time
for a dance beats the third fundamental rhythm with his foot, while
his hands pat an elaborate second rhythm to the primary rhythm of the
dancers.
The essential character of musical rhythm, as contrasted with the
rhythm of both simple sounds and of verse, is just this coördination
of a number of rhythms which move side by side. This is the reason for
the immense complexity and variety of musical rhythms. The processes
check each other and furnish a basis for a precision and elaborateness
of rhythmical movement in the individual parts which is quite
impossible in a simple rhythm.
Even when the concomitant rhythms are not expressed, as in an
unaccompanied solo, an accompaniment of some sort is present in the
motor apparatus, and contributes its effect to the consciousness. This
regulation of the movement by the coincidence of several rhythms is
the cause of the striking regularity of the temporal relations. At
some points in the musical series the several movement cycles may
appear in the same phase, and at these points the same irregularities
as in verse are possible, as in the case of pauses at the ends of
periods and the irregularities of phrasing. It is evident in cases of
expressional variations of tempo that a single broad rhythm is
dominating and serving as a cue for the other more elaborate rhythmic
processes, instead of being regulated by them.
*
STUDIES IN SYMMETRY.[1]
BY ETHEL D. PUFFER.
[1] SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig. 1 was copied from Reiss u. Stübel, ‘Todtenfeld v. Ancou,’
Berlin, 1880-1887.
Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 11 were copied from the
publications of the American Bureau of Ethnology by the kind
permission of the Direction.
Fig. 9. was copied from A.C. Haddon, ‘The Decorative Art of
British New Guinea,’ Cunningham Memoir, N., Royal Irish
Academy, 1894.
Fig. 10 was copied from Franz Boas, ‘The Decorative Art of the
Indians of the North Pacific Coast,’ Bulletin of the Am. Mus.
of Nat. Hist., Vol. IX.
I. THE PROBLEMS OF SYMMETRY.
The problem of æsthetic satisfaction in symmetrical forms is easily
linked with the well-known theory of ‘sympathetic reproduction.’ If
there exists an instinctive tendency to imitate visual forms by motor
impulses, the impulses suggested by the symmetrical form would seem to
be especially in harmony with the system of energies in our bilateral
organism, and this harmony may be the basis of our pleasure. But we
should then expect that all space arrangements which deviate from
complete symmetry, and thus suggest motor impulses which do not
correspond to the natural bilateral type would fail to give æsthetic
pleasure. Such, however, is not the case. Non-symmetrical arrangements
of space are often extremely pleasing.
This contradiction disappears if we are able to show that the
apparently non-symmetrical arrangement contains a hidden symmetry, and
that all the elements of that arrangement contribute to bring about
just that bilateral type of motor impulses which is characteristic of
geometrical symmetry. The question whether or not this is the fact
makes the leading problem of this paper, and the answer to it must
throw light on the value of the theory itself.
An exhaustive treatment of our question would thus divide itself into
two parts; the first dealing with real (or geometrical) symmetry, the
second with apparent asymmetry; the first seeking to show that there
is a real æsthetic pleasure in geometrical symmetry, and that this
pleasure is indeed based on the harmony of the motor impulses
suggested by symmetry, with the natural motor impulses of the human
organism; the second seeking to show in what manner æsthetically
pleasing but asymmetrical arrangements conform to the same principles.
Within these two groups of problems two general types of investigation
are seen to be required; experiment, and the analysis of æsthetic
objects.
The main question, as stated above, is of course whether the theory
can explain our pleasure in arrangements which are completely or
partly symmetrical. It is, however, an indispensible preliminary to
this question, to decide whether the pleasure in symmetrical
arrangements of space is indeed immediate and original. If it were
shown to be a satisfaction of expectation, bred partly from the
observation of symmetrical forms in nature, partly from the greater
convenience of symmetrical objects in daily use, the whole question of
a psychophysical explanation would have no point. If no original
æsthetic pleasure is felt, the problem would be transformed to a
demand for the explanation of the various ways in which practical
satisfaction is given by symmetrical objects and arrangements. The
logical order, then, for our investigation would be: First, the
appearance of symmetry in the productions of primitive life, as a
(debatable) æsthetic phenomenon emerging from pre-æsthetic conditions;
secondly, the experimental study of real symmetry; thirdly, the
analysis of geometrical symmetry in art, especially in painting and
architecture, by means of which the results of the preceding studies
could be checked and confirmed. Having once established a theory of
the æsthetic significance of real symmetry, we should next have to
examine asymmetrical, beautiful objects with reference to the relation
of their parts to a middle line; to isolate the elements which suggest
motor impulses; to find out how far it is possible to establish a
system of substitution of these psychological factors and how far such
substitution takes place in works of art—i.e., to what extent a
substitutional symmetry or balance is found in pleasing arrangements.
These investigations, again, would fall into the two groups of
experiment and analysis. The products of civilized art are too
complicated to admit of the complete analysis and isolation of
elements necessary to establish such a system of substitution of
psychological factors as we seek. From suggestions, however, obtained
from pleasing asymmetrical arrangements, first, isolated elements may
be treated experimentally, and secondly, the results checked and
confirmed by works of art.
With regard to the study of objects without a natural or suggested
middle line, as for instance sculpture, many types of architecture,
landscapes, gardens, room-arrangements, etc., we may fitly consider it
as a corollary to the study of asymmetrical objects with artificial
limits which do suggest a middle. If we find, by the study of them,
that a system of substitution of psychological factors does obtain,
the whole field can be covered by the theory already propounded, and
its application extended to the minutest details. The hypothesis,
having been so far confirmed, may be then easily applied to the field
of asymmetrical objects without a natural middle line.
The set of problems here suggested to the student of symmetry will not
be fully followed out in this paper. The experimental treatment of
geometrical symmetry, the analysis of the completely symmetrical
products of civilized art, and the analysis of all forms of asymmetry
except asymmetry in pictures will be omitted. If, however, the fact of
an original æsthetic feeling for symmetry is established by the study
of primitive art, and the theory of the balance of motor impulses
through the substitution of factors is established by the experimental
treatment of isolated elements, and further confirmed by the analysis
of pictures, the general argument may be taken as sufficiently
supported. This paper, then, will contain three sections: an
introductory one on symmetry in primitive art, and two main sections,
one on experiments in substitutional symmetry, and one on
substitutional symmetry or balance in pictures.
II. SYMMETRY IN PRIMITIVE ART.
The question which this section will attempt to answer is this: Is
there in primitive art an original and immediate æsthetic feeling for
symmetry? This question depends on two others which must precede it:
To what extent does symmetry actually appear in primitive art? and,
How far must its presence be accounted for by other than æsthetic
demands?
For the purpose of this inquiry the word primitive may be taken
broadly as applying to the products of savage and half-savage peoples
of to-day, as well as to those of prehistoric races. The expression
primitive art, also, requires a word of explanation. The primitive
man seldom makes purely ornamental objects, but, on the other hand,
most of his articles of daily use have an ornamental character. We
have to consider primitive art, therefore, as represented in the form
and ornamentation of all these objects, constituting practically an
household inventory, with the addition of certain drawings and
paintings which do not appear to serve a definite practical end. These
last, however, constitute only a small proportion of the material.
The method of the following outline treatment will be to deduct from
the object under consideration those symmetrical elements which seem
to be directly traceable to non-æsthetic influences; such elements as
are not thus to be accounted for must be taken as evidence of a direct
pleasure in, and desire for symmetry on the part of primitive man.
These possible non-æsthetic influences may be provisionally suggested
to be the technical conditions of construction, the greater
convenience and hence desirability of symmetrical objects for
practical use, and the symmetrical character of natural forms which
were imitated.
The first great group of objects is given in primitive architecture.
Here is found almost complete unanimity of design, the conical,
hemispherical or beehive form being well-nigh universal. The hut of
the Hottentots, a cattle-herding, half-nomadic people, is a good type
of this. A circle of flexible staves is stuck into the ground, bent
together and fastened at the top, and covered with skins. But this is
the form of shelter constructed with the greatest ease, suitable to
the demands of elastic materials, boughs, twigs, reeds, etc., and
giving the greatest amount of space with the least material. There
are, indeed, a few examples of the rectangular form of dwelling among
various primitive races, but these seem to be more or less open to
explanation by the theory advanced by Mr. V. Mendeleff, of the U.S.
Bureau of Ethnology. “In his opinion the rectangular form of
architecture which succeeds the type under discussion, must have
resulted from the circular form by the bringing together within a
limited area of many houses…. This partition would naturally be
built straight as a twofold measure of economy.”[2] This opinion is
confirmed by Mr. Cushing’s observations among the Zuñi villages, where
the pueblos have circular forms on the outskirts. Thus the shape of
the typical primitive dwelling is seen to be fully accounted
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