Influences of Geographic Environment - Ellen Churchill Semple (libby ebook reader .TXT) 📗
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James Logan, The Scottish Gael or Celtic Manners, p. 78. Hartford, 1849.
1337.Indian Census for 1901, Vol. I, Part I, p. 93, by Risley and Gait. Calcutta, 1903.
1338.Elisée Reclus, Europe, Vol. I, p. 219. New York, 1882.
1339.Heinrich von Treitschke, Politik, Vol. I, p, 228. Leipzig, 1897.
1340.Archibald Little, The Far East, pp. 47, 167. Oxford, 1905.
1341.H.R. Mill, International Geography, p. 243. New York, 1902.
1342.Malthus, Essay on Population, Book II, chap. I.
1343.Cliffe Leslie, Auvergne, Fortnightly Review, Vol. XVI, pp. 741-742. 1874.
1344.Oscar P. Crosby, Tibet and Turkestan, pp. 153, 156. London and New York, 1905. A. Little, The Far East, p. 217. Oxford, 1905.
1345.W.W. Rockhill, The Land of the Lamas, p. 227. New York, 1891.
1346.E.F. Knight, Where Three Empires Meet, p. 218. London, 1897.
1347.W.W. Rockhill, The Land of the Lamas, p. 212. New York, 1891.
1348.G.A. Sherring, Western Tibet and the British Borderland, p. 188. London, 1906.
1349.Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, pp. 451, 452. London, 1891.
1350.Strabo, Book XVI, chap. IV, 25.
1351.For authorities, see Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, pp. 452-455. London, 1891. McLennan, Primitive Marriage, pp. 178-179, 184-189. Edinburgh, 1865. G.A. Sherring, Western Tibet and the British Borderland, pp. 14, 15, 88-89, 177, 305. London, 1906.
1352.Spencer, Principles of Sociology, Vol. 1, pp. 646-649. New York, 1887.
1353.W.H.R. Rivers, The Todas, incorporated in W. I. Thomas' Source Book for Social Origins, pp. 485-486. Chicago, 1909.
1354.Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, p. 463. London, 1891.
1355.Sir Thomas Holdich, India, pp. 216, 217. London, 1905.
1356.W.W. Rockhill, The Land of the Lamas, pp. 211-212. New York, 1891.
1357.Oscar P. Crosby, Tibet and Turkestan, pp. 148-151. New York and London, 1905.
1358.Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, pp. 470-483, 547-548. London, 1891.
1359.Perceval Landon, The Opening of Tibet, p. 193. New York, 1905.
1360.E.F. Knight, Where Three Empires Meet, pp. 137-141. London, 1897.
1361.Strabo, Book IV, chap. VI, 6, 7, 8, 10.
1362.Ibid., Book III, chap. III, 5, 7, 8.
1363.Ibid, Book VII, chap. VI, 1.
1364.Ibid, Book XI, chap. XII, 4; chap. XIII, 3, 6.
1365.E.F. Knight, Where Three Empires Meet, pp. 346-349, 460-464. London, 1897.
1366.Ibid, 280-282.
1367.Sir Thomas Holdich, India, p. 33. London, 1905.
1368.Ibid, 219-221.
1369.Pallas, Travels Through the Southern Provinces of Russia, Vol. I, pp. 386-390, 406-407. London, 1812.
1370.D.G. Hogarth, The Nearer East, p. 246-249. London, 1902.
1371.M. Hue, Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China in 1846, Vol. II, pp. 90-93, 100-101, 129-132. Chicago, 1898.
1372.Hans Helmolt, History of the World, Vol. III, pp. 131, 133-135. New York and London, 1902-1906.
1373.Strabo, Book V, chap. IV, II.
1374.Arcticle Nepal, Encyclopædia Britannica.
1375.C. Keller, Madagascar, pp. 24-26, 72, 85. London, 1901.
1376.E.F. Knight, Where Three Empires Meet, pp. 280, 288-289. London, 1897.
1377.Walter K. Kelly, History of Russia, Vol. II, p. 392. London, 1881.
1378.Grote, History of Greece, Vol. II, p. 441. New York, 1859.
1379.Ibid., Vol. X, pp. 208, 215, 224-225.
1380.D.G. Hogarth, The Nearer East, p. 235. London, 1902.
1381.Henry Buckle, History of Civilization in England, Vol. II, pp. 125, 136-137. New York, 1871.
1382.W.K. Kelly, History of Russia, Vol. II, p. 394. London, 1881.
1383.Pallas, Travels Through the Southern Provinces of Russia, Vol. I, pp. 391, 404-405. London, 1812.
1384.H. Spencer, A Visit to Andorra, Fortnightly Review, Vol. 67, pp. 53-60. 1897.
1385.Article Tyrol, Encyclopædia Britannica.
1386.Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. III, pp. 253-254. London, 1896-1898.
1387.H.J. Mackinder, The Rhine, pp. 27-31, 47-49, 56, 57. London, 1908.
1388.E.P. Knight, Where Three Empires Meet, pp. 305-306. London, 1897.
1389.B.H. Baden-Powell, The Indian Village Community, pp. 136, 143-146. London, 1896.
1390.D.G. Hogarth, The Nearer East, pp. 229-231, 248, 252-253. London, 1902.
1391.Sir Thomas Holdich, India, pp. 243-244. London, 1905.
1392.Niebuhr, Travels Through Arabia, Vol. II, pp. 50-51. Edinburgh, 1792.
1393.B.H. Baden-Powell, The Indian Village Community, pp. 40, 47, 110, 121, 151-154, 159. London, 1896.
1394.Captain J. Forsythe, The Highlands of Central India, pp. 10-15, 23-24, 123-125. London, 1889.
1395.Ibid., 6, 7, 10-12, 141-147.
1396.Angus Hamilton, Afghanistan, pp. 262-268. New York, 1906.
1397.Sir Thomas Holdich, India, pp. 98-99. London, 1905.
1398.Merzbacher, Aus den Hochregionen des Kaukasus, Vol. I, pp. 55-56, 156. Leipzig, 1901.
1399.W.Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe, pp. 281-283, 289-290, map p. 285. New York, 1899.
1400.Ibid., 282.
1401.Article Tyrol, Encyclopædia Britannica.
1402.Archibald Little, The Far East, 131-132. Oxford, 1905. Isabella Bird Bishop, The Yangtze Valley and Beyond, Vol. II, 132-133, 146-147, 166, 174, 207-210. New York and London, 1900. S. Wells Williams, The Middle Kingdom, Vol. I, p. 43, New York, 1904. J. Naken, Die Provinz Kwangtung und ihre Bevölkerung, Petermanns Geographische Mittheilungen, Vol. 24, p. 421. 1878.
1403.Archibald Little, The Far East, pp. 307-308. Oxford, 1905.
1404.E.C. Semple, The Anglo-Saxons of the Kentucky Mountains, Geographical Journal, Vol. XVII, pp. 588-623. London, 1901.
1405.Sir Thomas Holdich, The Origin of the Kafir of the Hindu Kush, Geographical Journal, Vol. VII, p. 42. London, 1896.
1406.George Adam Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 259-261. New York, 1897.
1407.Isabella Bird Bishop, Korea and Her Neighbors, pp. 21, 134-135, 140, 142. New York, 1897.
1408.Article Waldenses, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Climate enters fundamentally into all consideration of geographic influences, either by implication or explicitly. It is a factor in most physiological and psychological effects of environment. It underlies the whole significance of zonal location, continental and insular. Large territorial areas are favorable to improved variation in men and animals partly because they comprise a diversity of natural conditions, of which a wide range of climates forms one. This is also one advantage of a varied relief, especially in the Tropics, where all the zones may be compressed into a small area on the slopes of high mountains like the Andes and Kilimanjaro. Climate fixes the boundaries of human habitation in Arctic latitudes and high altitudes by drawing the dead-line to all organic life. It dominates life in steppes and torrid deserts as in sub-polar wastes. It encourages intimacy with the sea in tropical Malays and Polynesians, and like a slave-driver, scourges on the fur-clad Eskimo to reap the harvest of the deep. It is always present in that intricate balance of geographic factors which produces a given historical result, throwing its weight now into one side of the scales, now into the other. It underlies the production, distribution and exchange of commodities derived from the vegetable and animal kingdoms, influences methods of agriculture, and the efficiency of human labor in various industries.1409 Hence it is a potent factor in the beginning and in the evolution of civilization, so far as this goes hand in hand with economic development.
The foregoing chapters have therefore been indirectly concerned with climate to no small degree, but they have endeavored to treat the subject analytically, showing climate as working with or against or in some combination with other geographic factors. This course was necessary, because climatic influences are so conspicuous and so important that by the older geographers like Montesquieu1410 and others, they have been erected into a blanket theory, and made to explain a wide range of social and historical phenomena which were properly the effect of other geographic factors.
For a clear understanding of climatic influences, it is necessary to adhere to the chief characteristics of the atmosphere, such as heat and cold, moisture and aridity, and to consider the effect of zonal location, winds and relief in the production and distribution of these; also to distinguish between direct and indirect results of climate, temporary and permanent, physiological and psychological ones, because the confusion of these various effects breeds far-fetched conclusions. The direct modification of man by climate is partly an a priori assumption, because the incontestable evidences of such modification are not very numerous, however strong the probability may be. The effect of climate upon plant and animal life is obvious, and immediately raises the assumption that man has been similarly influenced. But there is this difference: in contrast to the helpless dependence upon environment of stationary plants and animals, whose range of movement is strictly determined by conditions of food and temperature, the great mobility of man, combined with his inventiveness, enables him to flee or seek almost any climatic condition, and to emancipate himself from the full tyranny of climatic control by substituting an indirect economic effect for a direct physical effect.
The direct results of climate are various, though some are open to the charge of imperfect proof. Even the relation of nigrescence to tropical heat, which seems to be established by the geographical distribution of negroid races in the Old World, fails to find support from the facts of pigmentation among the American Indians from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego. Nevertheless climate undoubtedly modifies many physiological processes in individuals and peoples,1411 affects their immunity from certain classes of diseases and their susceptibility to others, influences their temperament, their energy, their capacity for sustained or for merely intermittent effort, and therefore helps determine their efficiency as economic and political agents.
While producing these direct effects, climate also influences man indirectly by controlling the wide range of his life conditions dependent upon the plant and animal life about him. It dictates what crops he may raise, and has it in its power to affect radically the size of his harvest. It decides which flocks and herds are best suited to his environment, and therefore directs his pastoral activities, whether he keeps reindeer, camels, llamas, horses or horned cattle. By interdicting both agriculture and stock-raising, as in Greenland whose ice cap leaves little surface free even for reindeer moss, it condemns the inhabitants forever to the uncertain subsistence of the hunter. Where it encourages the growth of large forests which harbor abundant game and yield abundant fruits, as in the hot, moist equatorial belt and on rainy mountain slopes, it prolongs the hunter stage of development, retards the advance to agriculture. Climate thus helps to influence the rate and the limit of cultural development. It determines in part the local supply of raw material with which man has to work, and hence the majority of his secondary activities, except where these are expended on mineral resources. It decides the character of his food, clothing, and dwelling, and ultimately of his civilization.
The very ground under man's feet, moreover, feels the molding hand of climate. In one region a former age of excessive cold has glaciated the surface and scoured off the fertile loam down to the underlying rock, or left the land coated with barren glacial drift
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