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Eleventh Census of the United States, Population, Part I., maps on pp. xviii-xxiii.
337.L. March Phillipps, In the Desert, pp. 64-68, 77. London, 1905.
338.Fully treated in E.C. Semple, American History and Its Geographic Conditions, pp. 22-31. Boston, 1903.
339.Sir S.W. Baker, The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia, pp. 88, 128-129, 135. Hartford, 1868.
340.Norway, Official Publication for the Paris Exhibition, pp. 3-4 and map. Christiania, 1900.
341.J. Partsch, Central Europe, p. 297. London, 1903.
342.Cæsar, Bello Gallico, Book IV, chap. 3 and Book VI, chap. 23.
343.Ibid., Book VI, chap. 10.
344.T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, Vol. II, p. 56, Note I. Oxford, 1892.
345.Helmolt, History of the World, Vol. IV, p. 510. New York, 1902-1906.
346.Grote, History of Greece, Vol. IX, chap. 70, pp. 99, 115. New York, 1859.
347.Dr. Wilhelm Junker, Travels in Africa, pp. 18, 45, 79, 87, 115, 117, 138, 191, 192, 200, 308, 312, 325, 332. Translated from the German. London, 1892.
348.H. Barth, Human Society in North Central Africa, Journal Royal Geographical Society, Vol. XXX, pp. 123-124. London, 1860.
349.Boyd Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile, Vol. II, pp. 163-164. London, 1907.
350.John H. Speke, Discovery of the Sources of the Nile, pp. 74, 89, 91, 94, 95, 173, 176-177, 197. New York, 1868.
351.Theodore Roosevelt, The Winning of the West, Vol. I, pp. 50, 70, 135. New York, 1895.
352.C. C. Royce, The Cherokee Nations of Indians, p. 140. Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Washington, 1884.
353.Albert J. Pickett, History of Alabama, pp. 79-89, 113-115, 1851. Reprint, Birmingham, 1900. James Adair, History of the American Indians, p. 257. London, 1775.
354.Ibid., pp. 252-3, 282.
355.Albert J. Pickett, History of Alabama, pp. 133-135. 1851. Reprint, Birmingham, 1900.
356.Archibald Little, The Far East, p. 249. Oxford, 1905.
357.M. Huc, Travels in Tartary, Thibet and China, 1844-1846, Vol. I, p. 74. Translated from the French. Reprint, Chicago, 1898.
358.Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan, Vol. I, pp. 102, 448; Vol. III, pp. 203-205, 314. Leipzig, 1889. Boyd Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile, Vol. II, p. 170. London, 1907.
359.Albert J. Pickett, History of Alabama, pp. 118-119. 1851. Reprint, Birmingham, 1900.
360.Norway, Official Publication for the Paris Exhibition, pp. 5, 83-84. Christiania, 1900.
361.Albert J. Pickett, History of Alabama, pp. 416, 417, 461, 467. 1857. Reprint, Birmingham, 1900.
362.C. E. Akers, History of South America, 1854-1904, p. 435. New York, 1904.
363.H. R. Mill, International Geography, p. 883. New York, 1902.
364.Matias Romero, Mexico and the United States, pp. 433-441. New York, 1898.
365.E. Hertslet, The Map of Europe by Treaty, 1814-1875, Vol. I, pp. 422, 425, 426; Vol. II, p. 1430.
366.Eleventh Census of the United States, Population, Part I., map No. 10 and p. cxliii.
367.Ibid. Based on comparison of Tables 15 and 33 for the States mentioned.
368.W. Z. Ripley, Races of Europe, pp. 250-253. New York, 1899.
369.W. Deecke, Italy, pp. 325, 347, 349. Translated from the German. London, 1904.
370.Sydow-Wagner, Methodischer Schul-Atlas, Völker und Sprachenkarten, No. 13. Gotha, 1905. W. Z. Ripley, Races of Europe, pp. 282-284. New York, 1899.
371.Ibid., pp. 255-257. W. Deecke, Italy, p. 357. London, 1904.
372.Sydow-Wagner, Methodischer Schul-Atlas, Völker und Sprachenkarten No, 13. Gotha, 1905.
373.Hugh R. Mill, International Geography, p. 309. New York, 1902.
374.D. M. Wallace, Russia, pp. 151-155. New York, 1904.
375.W. Z. Ripley, Races of Europe, p. 362. New York, 1899.
376.Archibald Little, The Far East. Map p. 8 and pp. 171-172. Oxford, 1905. M. Huc, Travels in Tartary, Thibet and China, 1844-1846. Vol. I, pp. 2-4, 21, 197-201, 284. Reprint, Chicago, 1898.
377.Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 166-170.
378.Ibid., Vol II, p. 23.
379.Ibid., Vol. I, 312-313.
380.Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 319-322, 327.
381.M. Huc, Journey through the Chinese Empire, Vol. I, p. 36. New York, 1871.
382.Isabella Bird Bishop, The Yangtze Valley and Beyond, Vol. II, pp. 70-71, 88, 91, 92, 104-109, 113, 117, 133, 134, 155, 194, 195. London, 1900.
383.M. Huc, Travels in Tartary, Thibet and China, 1844-1846, Vol. II, pp. 155-156, 264. Reprint, Chicago, 1898.
384.C. A. Sherring, Western Tibet and the British Borderland, pp. 60, 65-73, 205, 347-358. London, 1906. Statistical Atlas of India, pp. 61-62, maps. Calcutta, 1895. Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. I, p. 295-296. Oxford, 1907.
385.Eliza E. Scidmore, Winter India, pp. 106-108. New York, 1903.
386.M. Huc, Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China, 1844-1846, Vol. I, pp. 312-313. Reprint, Chicago, 1898.
387.Alexis Krausse, Russia in Asia, pp. 174-175. New York, 1899.
388.Charles E. Akers, History of South America, 1854-1904, p. 562. New York, 1904.
389.James Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, pp. 108-109. New York, 1897.
390.O. P. Crosby, Tibet and Turkestan, pp. 15-20.
391.H. R. Mill, International Geography, p. 378. New York, 1902. H. Spencer, A Visit to Andorra, Fortnightly Review, Vol. 67, pp. 44-60. 1897.
392.Wm. Robertson, History of Scotland, pp. 19-20. New York, 1831. The Scotch Borderers, Littell's Living Age, Vol 40, p. 180.
393.Isabella Bird Bishop, The Yangtze Valley and Beyond, Vol. II, pp. 209-210. London, 1900.
394.M. Huc, Travels in Tartary, Thibet and China, 1844-1846, Vol. I, pp. 41, 42, 97. Reprint, Chicago, 1898.
395.D. M. Wallace, Russia, pp. 352-356. New York, 1904. Article on Cossacks in Encyclopedia Britannica.
396.Pallas, Travels in Southern Russia, Vol. I, pp. 126-129; 442; Vol. II, pp. 330-331. London, 1812.
397.G. Adam Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, p. 9. New York, 1897.
398.D. M. Wallace, Russia, p. 358. New York, 1904. Walter K. Kelly, History of Russia, Vol. II, pp. 394-395. London, 1881.
399.D. M. Wallace, Russia, p. 298. New York, 1904.
400.Alexis Krausse, Russia in Asia, pp. 43, 53. New York, 1899.
401.Francis H. Nichol, Through Hidden Shensi, pp. 139-140. New York, 1902.
402.M. Hue, Travels in Tartary, Thibet and China, 1844-1846, Vol. I, p. 23. Reprint, Chicago, 1898.
403.Theodore Roosevelt, The Winning of the West, Vol. I, pp. 130-132. New York, 1895.
404.John Fiske, Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, Vol. II, pp. 311, 315-321. Boston, 1897.
405.Archibald Little, The Far East, p. 249. Oxford, 1905.
406.Alfred Rambaud, History of Russia, Vol. II, pp. 45, 199-200. Boston, 1886.
407.Malcolm Lang, History of Scotland, Vol. I, pp. 42-43. London, 1800. The Scotch Borderland, Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCLX, p. 191. 1886.
408.Friedrich Ratel, History of Mankind, Vol. III, p. 175, London, 1896.
409.A. B. Hart, Foundations of American Foreign Policy, pp. 81-82. New York, 1901.
410.Alfred Rambaud, History of Russia, Vol. II, pp. 45, 50. Boston, 1886.
411.Justin Winsor, The Westward Movement, p. 366. Boston, 1899.
Of all geographical boundaries, the most important is that between land and sea. The coast, in its physical nature, is a zone of transition between these two dominant forms of the earth's surface; it bears the mark of their contending forces, varying in its width with every stronger onslaught of the unresting sea, and with every degree of passive resistance made by granite or sandy shore. So too in an anthropo-geographical sense, it is a zone of transition. Now the life-supporting forces of the land are weak in it, and it becomes merely the rim of the sea; for its inhabitants the sea means food, clothes, shelter, fuel, commerce, highway, and opportunity. Now the coast is dominated by the exuberant forces of a productive soil, so that the ocean beyond is only a turbulent waste and a long-drawn barrier: the coast is the hem of the land. Neither influence can wholly exclude the other in this amphibian belt, for the coast remains the intermediary between the habitable expanse of the land and the international highway of the sea. The break of the waves and the dash of the spray draw the line beyond which human dwellings cannot spread; for these the shore is the outermost limit, as for ages also in the long infancy of the races, before the invention of boat and sail, it drew the absolute boundary to human expansion. In historical order, its first effect has been that of a barrier, and for the majority of peoples this it has remained; but with the development of navigation and the spread of human activities from the land over sea to other countries, it became the gateway both of land and sea—at once the outlet for exploration, colonization, and trade, and the open door through which a continent or island receives contributions of men or races or ideas from transoceanic shores. Barrier and threshold: these are the rôles which coasts have always played in history. To-day we see them side by side. But in spite of the immense proportions assumed by transmarine intercourse, the fact remains that the greater part of the coasts of the earth are for their inhabitants only a barrier and not an outlet, or at best only a base for timorous ventures seaward that rarely lose sight of the shore.
German North Sea Coast.
German North Sea Coast.
As intermediary belt between land and sea, the coast becomes a peculiar habitat which leaves its mark upon its people. We speak of coast strips, coastal plains, "tidewater country," coast cities; of coast tribes, coast peoples, maritime colonies; and each word brings up a picture of a land or race or settlement permeated by the influences of the sea. The old term of "coastline" has no application to such an intermediary belt, for it is a zone of measurable width; and this width varies with the relief of the land, the articulation of the coast according as it is uniform or complex, with the successive stages of civilization and the development of navigation among the people who inhabit it.
Along highly articulated coasts, showing the interpenetration of sea and land in a broad band of capes and islands separated by tidal channels and inlets, or on shores deeply incised by river estuaries, or on low shelving beaches which screen brackish lagoons and salt marshes behind sand reefs and dune ramparts, and which thus form an indeterminate boundary of alternate land and water, the zone character of the coast in a physical sense becomes conspicuous. In an anthropological sense the zone character is clearly indicated by the different uses of its inner and outer edge made by man in different localities and in different periods of history.
The old German maritime cities of the North Sea and the Baltic were located on rivers from 6 to 60 miles from the open sea, always on the inner edge of the coastal belt. Though primarily trading towns, linked together once in the sovereign confederacy of the
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