Influences of Geographic Environment - Ellen Churchill Semple (libby ebook reader .TXT) 📗
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NOTES TO CHAPTER X
579.
Census of the Philippine Islands, Vol. I, pp. 465, 563-567, 573. Washington, 1905.
580.Sir John Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, pp. 173-223. New York, 1872.
581.Ferdinand Keller, Lake Dwellings, Vol. I, pp. 2-7, 576. London, 1876. English Lake Dwellings, Westminster Review, pp. 337-347. 1887.
582.P.W. Joyce, A Social History of Ancient Ireland, Vol. II, pp. 65-66. London, 1903.
583.Herodotus, V. 16.
584.Alexander von Humboldt, Aspects of Nature, pp. 148-149. Translated by Mrs. Sabine, Philadelphia, 1849. E.F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, p. 203. London, 1883.
585.Sir Thomas Holdich, India, p. 184. London, 1905.
586.Verney L. Cameron, Across Africa, pp. 332-334. London, 1885.
587.David and Charles Livingstone, Narrative of Expedition to the Zambezi, p. 414. New York, 1866.
588.Census of the Philippine Islands, Vol. I, pp. 464-466, 565. Washington, 1905.
589.Stanford's Australasia, Vol. II, pp. 256-257. London, 1894.
590.A.R. Wallace, The Malay Archipelago, pp. 368, 381. New York, 1869.
591.Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, pp. 262-263, 344. London, 1896-1898.
592.Richard Semon, In the Australian Bush, pp. 340-342, 347. London, 1899.
593.John L. Stoddard, Lectures, Vol. III, p. 311. Boston, 1903.
594.John Barrows, Travels in China, pp. 377-379. Philadelphia, 1805.
595.William M. Wood, Fankwei, pp. 169-174. New York, 1859.
596.Edmondo de Amicis, Holland and Its People, pp. 4-13. New York, 1890.
597.G.P. Marsh, The Earth as Modified by Human Action, chap. IV, pp. 330-352. New York, 1871.
598.J. Partsch, Central Europe, pp. 106-108. London, 1903.
599.Roscher, National-Oekonomik des Ackerbaues, p. 127, Note 1. Stuttgart, 1888.
600.Elisée Reclus, Europe, Vol. IV, pp. 222-223. New York, 1886. Miller and Skertchley, The Fenland, Past and Present, pp. 7-9. London, 1878.
601.Ibid., pp. 145-147.
602.Sir Samuel W. Baker, The Albert Nyanza, Great Basin of the Nile, pp. 49-50. London and Philadelphia, 1866.
603.Diodorus Siculus, Book I, chap. III, p. 41. Translated by G. Booth. London, 1814.
604.David Livingstone, Missionary Travels in Africa, pp. 234-236, 239, 272. New York, 1858.
605.Felix Dubois, Timbuctoo, pp. 51-55, 145. New York, 1896.
606.Isabella B. Bishop, The Yangtze Valley and Beyond., Vol. I, pp. 8, 10, 97. London and New York, 1900.
607.Cyrus Thomas, Mound Explorations, pp. 626, 650-653. Twelfth Annual Report Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1894.
608.Strabo, Book V, chap. I, 4.
609.W. Deecke, Italy, pp. 88-89. London, 1904.
610.John Barrows, Travels in China, p. 349. Philadelphia, 1805.
611.Meredith Townsend, Asia and Europe, pp. 278-284. New York, 1904.
612.Isabella B. Bishop, The Yangtze Valley and Beyond, Vol. II, pp. 72-73 76-81. New York and London, 1900. For the future of land reclamation, see N.S. Shaler, Man and the Earth, chap. V. New York, 1906.
613.Strabo, Book X, chap. II, 19.
614.John W. Draper, Intellectual Development of Europe, Vol. I, pp. 84-86. New York, 1876.
615.Winwood Reade, The Martyrdom of Man, pp. 9-17. Eighth Edition, New York.
616.Irrigation, Thirteenth Report of the U.S. Geological Survey, Part III, pp. 133-135. Washington, 1895. J.W. Powell, Twenty-third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, pp. XII, XIII. Washington, 1904. Cosmos Mindeleff, Aboriginal Remains in the Verde Valley, Arizona, pp. 187, 192-194, 238-245. Thirteenth Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology. Washington, 1896. V. Mindeleff, Pueblo Architecture, pp. 80, 216-217. Eighth Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology. Washington, 1891. F. W. Hodge, Prehistoric Irrigation in Arizona, American Anthropologist, July, 1893.
617.McGee and Thomas, Prehistoric North America, pp. 105-106, 113, 118, 120-144, 478. Philadelphia, 1905.
618.Eleventh Census, Report on the Indians, pp. 49, 161, 415. Washington, 1894. D.G. Brinton, The American Race, pp. 116-117. Philadelphia, 1901.
619.Ibid., pp. 161, 181, 182, 188, 191, 193, 198, 410, 441-445. M.C. Stevenson, The Zuni Indians, pp. 351-354. Twenty-third Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1904.
620.Ibid., pp. 13-14. H.H. Bancroft, The Native Races, Vol. I, pp. 539-547. San Francisco, 1886.
621.Norway, Official Publication, pp. 99-100. Christiania, 1900.
622.Ernst Curtius, History of Greece, Vol. I, pp. 49-50. New York.
623.Ibid., Vol. I, p. 440.
624.Dietrich Schaefer, Die Hansestädte und König Waldemar von Dänemark, pp. 255-257. Jena, 1879. Helen Zimmern, Story of the Hansa Towns, pp. 26-27. New York, 1895.
625.W.B. Weeden, Social and Economic History of New England, Vol. I, pp. 17, 18, 90, 91, 128-135, 139. Boston, 1899.
626.Ibid., Vol. I, p. 245.
627.H.D. Traill, Social England, Vol. III, pp. 363-364, 540. London and New York, 1895.
628.J. Partsch, Central Europe, p. 311. London, 1903.
629.Alexander P. Engelhardt, A Russian Province of the North, pp. 54-71. From the Russian. London, 1899.
To a large view, rivers appear in two aspects. They are either part of the general water envelope of the earth, extensions of seas and estuaries back into the up-hill reaches of the land, feeders of the ocean, roots which it spreads out over the surface of the continents, not only to gather its nourishment from ultimate sources in spring and glacier, but also to bring down to the coast the land-born products of the interior to feed a sea-born commerce; or rivers are one of the land forms, merely water filling valley channels, serving to drain the fields and turn the mills of men. In the first aspect their historical importance has been both akin and linked to that of the ocean, despite the freshness and smaller volume of their waters and the unvarying direction of their currents. The ocean draws them and their trade to its vast basin by the force of gravity. It unites with its own the history of every log-stream in Laurentian or Himalayan forest, as it formerly linked the beaver-dammed brooks of wintry Canada with the current of trade following the Gulf Stream to Europe.
Where sea and river meet, Nature draws no sharp dividing line. Here the indeterminate boundary zone is conspicuous. The fresh water stream merges into brackish estuary, estuary into saltier inlet and inlet into briny ocean. Closely confined sea basins like the Black and Baltic, located in cool regions of slight evaporation and fed from a large catchment basin, approach in their reduced salinity the fresh water lakes and coastal lagoons in which rivers stretch out to rest on their way to the ocean. The muddy current of the Yangtze Kiang colors the Yellow Sea, and warns incoming Chinese junks of the proximity of land many hours before the low-lying shores can be discerned.630 Columbus, sailing along the Caribbean coast of South America off the Orinoco mouth, found the ocean waters brackish and surmised the presence of a large river and therefore a large continent on his left.631
The transitional form between stream and pelagic inlet found in every river mouth is emphasized where strong tidal currents carry the sea far into these channels of the land. The tides move up the St. Lawrence River 430 miles (700 kilometers) or half way between Montreal and Quebec, and up the Amazon 600 miles (1,000 kilometers). Owing to their resemblance to pelagic channels, the estuaries of the American rivers with their salty tide were repeatedly mistaken, in the period of discoveries, for the Northwest Passage to the Pacific. Newport in 1608 explored the broad sluggish course of the James River in his search for a western ocean. Henry Hudson ascended the Hudson River almost as far as Albany, before he discovered that this was no maritime pathway, like the Bosporus or Dardanelles, leading to an ulterior sea. The long tidal course of the St. Lawrence westward into the heart of the continent fed La Salle's dream of finding here a water route to the Pacific, and fixed his village of "La Chine" above the rapids at Montreal as a signpost pointing the way to the Indies and Cathay. In the same way a tidal river at the head of Cook's Inlet on the Alaskan coast was mistaken for a Northeast Passage, not by Captain Cook but by his fellow officers, on his Pacific voyage of 1776-1780; and it was followed for several days before its character as a river was established.632
Rivers have always been the great intermediaries between land and sea, for in the ocean all find their common destination. Until the construction of giant steamers in recent years, sea navigation has always passed without break into river navigation. Sailing vessels are carried by the trade wind 600 miles up the Orinoco to San Fernando. Alexander's discovery of the Indus River led by almost inevitable sequence to the rediscovery of the Eastern sea route, which in turn ran from India through the Strait of Oman and the Persian Gulf up the navigable course of the Euphrates to the elbow of the river at Thapsacus. Enterprising sea folk have always used rivers as natural continuations of the marine highway into the land. The Humber estuary and its radiating group of streams led the invading Angles in the sixth century into the heart of Britain.633 The long navigable courses of the rivers of France exposed that whole country to the depredations of the piratical Northmen in the ninth and tenth centuries. Up every river they came, up the Scheldt into Flanders, the Seine to Paris and the Marne to Meaux; up the Loire to Orleans, the Garonne to Toulouse and the Rhone to Valence.634 So the Atlantic rivers of North America formed the lines of European exploration and settlement. The St. Lawrence brought the French from the ocean into the Great Lakes basin, whose low, swampy watershed they readily crossed in their light canoes to the tributaries of the Mississippi; and scarcely had they reached the "Father of Waters" before they were planting the flag of France on the Gulf of Mexico at its mouth. The Tupi Indians of South America, a genuine water-race, moved from their original home on the Paraguay headstream of the La Plata down to its mouth, then expanded northward along the coast of Brazil in
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