Word Study and English Grammar - Frederick W. Hamilton (digital e reader .TXT) 📗
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The man's paper is cut.
The possessive case is shown by the form of the noun. It is formed by adding s preceded by an apostrophe to the nominative case, thus,
John's hat.
There is a considerable difference of usage regarding the formation of the possessives of nouns ending in s in the singular. The general rule is to proceed as in other nouns by adding the apostrophe and the other s as James's hat. DeVinne advises following the pronunciation. Where the second s is not pronounced, as often happens to avoid the prolonged hissing sound of another s, he recommends omitting it in print.
Moses' hat, for Moses's hat.
For conscience' sake.
Plural nouns ending in s add the apostrophe only; ending in other letters they add the apostrophe and s like singular nouns, the Jones' house, the children's toys.
The possessive pronouns never take the apostrophe. We say hers, theirs, its. It's is an abbreviation for it is.
Care should be taken in forming the possessives of phrases containing nouns in apposition, or similar compound phrases. We should say "I called at Brown the printer's" or "since William the Conqueror's time."
Adjectives
An adjective is a word used to qualify, limit, or define a noun, or a word or phrase which has the value of a noun. Nouns are ordinarily very general and indefinite in meaning, for example, man conveys only a very general idea. To make that idea definite we need the help of one or more descriptive words such as black, tall, stout, good.
I saw a man.
gives no definite idea of the person seen.
I saw a tall, thin, dark, old man.
presents a very definite picture. It will be noted that these descriptive words have a way of forming combinations among themselves. It must be remembered, however, that all the words thus used describe the noun. Adjectives are sometimes used as substitutes for nouns. This is one of the many verbal short cuts in which the English language abounds.
The good die young
means good people die young.
We should seek the good and beautiful
means we should seek good or beautiful things, or persons, or qualities, or perhaps everything good and beautiful.
When adjectives indicate a quality they have three forms called degrees indicating the extent or amount of the quality possessed by the noun especially as compared with other objects of the same sort, a big man, a bigger man, the biggest man. These degrees are called positive, indicating possession of bigness; comparative, indicating possession of more bigness than some other man; superlative, indicating possession of more bigness than any other man. When we wish to tell the amount of the quality without comparing the possessor with any other object or group of objects we use a modifying word later to be described called an adverb.
I saw a very big man,
indicates that the man possessed much bigness, but makes no comparison with any other man or group of men. Comparison is generally indicated in two ways, first, by adding to the adjectives the terminations er and est as high, higher, highest, or, second, by using the words more and most, as splendid, more splendid, most splendid. The question which of the two methods should be used is not always easy to decide. It depends somewhat on usage and on euphony or agreeableness of sound.
Adjectives of three or more syllables use the long form, that is, the additional word. We should not say beautifuler or beautifulest. Adjectives of two syllables may often be compared either way; for example, it would be equally correct to say nobler and noblest or more noble and most noble. An example of the influence of euphony may be found in the adjective honest. We might say honester without hesitation but we should be less likely to say honestest on account of the awkward combination of syllables involved. Adjectives of one syllable usually take the short form but not invariably. The exceptions, however, are more common in poetry than in prose. When any question rises it is usually safer to use the long form of comparison in the case of two-syllable adjectives and to use the short form in the case of one-syllable adjectives. The proper use of the long form is one of those niceties of diction which come only with careful observation and with training of the ear and of the literary sense.
The word most should never be used, as it often is, in the place of almost. Careless people say "I am most ready" meaning "I am almost, or nearly ready." The phrase "I am most ready," really means "I am in the greatest possible readiness." Such use of most is common in old English but much less so in modern speech.
Two very common adjectives are irregularly compared. They are good, better, best, and bad, worse, worst. In spite of the fact that these adjectives are among the most common in use and their comparison may be supposed to be known by everybody, one often hears the expressions gooder, goodest, more better, bestest, bader, badest, worser, and worsest. Needless to say, these expressions are without excuse except that worser is sometimes found in old English.
Illiterate people sometimes try to make their speech more forceful by combining the two methods of comparison in such expressions as more prettier, most splendidest. Such compounds should never be used.
Some adjectives are not compared. They are easily identified by their meaning. They indicate some quality which is of such a nature that it must be possessed fully or not at all, yearly, double, all. Some adjectives have a precise meaning in which they cannot be compared and a loose or popular one in which they can be; for example, a thing either is or is not round or square. Nevertheless we use these words in such a loose general way that it is not absolutely incorrect to say rounder and roundest or squarer and squarest. Such expressions should be used with great care and avoided as far as possible. None but the very ignorant would say onliest, but one often sees the expressions more and most unique. This is particularly bad English. Unique does not mean rare, unusual; it means one of a kind, absolutely unlike anything else. Clearly this is a quality which cannot be possessed in degrees. An object either does or does not have it.
Articles
An article is a little adjective which individualizes the noun, a boy, an apple, the crowd.
A which is used before consonantal sounds and an which is used before vowel sounds are called indefinite articles because they individualize without specializing. The is called the definite article because it both individualizes and specializes.
A may be used before o and u if the sound is really consonantal as in such a one, a use, a utility. An may be used before h if the h is not sounded, for example, an hour but a horror.
Verbs
A verb is a word which asserts or declares. In other words, it makes a noun or pronoun tell something. John paper tells nothing. John wastes paper tells something. Verbs are the most difficult of all the parts of speech to understand and to use properly. As a rule, an English verb has something more than fifty parts which, with their uses, should be thoroughly learned from a grammar. This is not so difficult a matter as it might appear, except to those whose native speech is not English. Nevertheless you should be on the guard against such blunders as I seen, I seed, for I saw, I runned for I ran, I et for I ate, I throwed for I threw, and the like. In most verbs these parts are regular. In some they are irregular. A list of irregular verbs will be found at the end of this volume.
While the plan of this book does not call for a systematic study of verbs any more than of any other words, it is desirable to call attention to some points as being the occasions of frequent mistakes.
A simple sentence consists of a verb, its subject, and its object. The verb indicates the action, the subject is the noun (name of a person or thing) which does the act, the object is the noun to which the thing is done. Verbs have forms denoting person and number, for example:
Singular Plural 1st I love 1st We love 2nd You love (thou lovest)formal and archaic. 2nd You love 3rd He loves 3rd They love Singular Plural 1st I was 1st We were 2nd You were (thou wast) 2nd You were 3rd He was 3rd They were
Verbs agree with their subjects in person and number. We all know this but we do not always remember it. Unless you are very careful, you will find yourself using a singular subject with a plural verb or the reverse. Mistakes of this sort are particularly liable to happen in the case of collective nouns, in the use of personal pronouns as subjects, and in cases where the subject and the verb are far separated in the sentence.
Those forms of the verb which tell whether the subject is acting or is acted upon are called voices. When the subject is acting the verb is said to be in the active voice. When the subject is acted upon the verb is said to be in the passive voice. Verbs in the passive voice have no objects because the subject, being acted upon, is itself in the place of an object.
Those forms of the verb which tell whether the time of the action is past, present, or future, are called tenses. They are six, viz.
Present, I print (am printing) the book.
Past or imperfect, I printed the book.
Future, I shall print the book.
Perfect, or present perfect, I have printed the book.
Pluperfect or past perfect, I had printed the book before you wrote.
Future perfect, I will notify you when I shall have printed the book.
When adverbs denoting time are indicated care should be taken to see that the verb is consistent with the adverb. "I printed it yesterday," not "I have printed it yesterday;" "I have not yet printed it," not "I did not print it yet;" "I have printed it already," not "I printed it already."
Trouble is sometimes found in choosing the right forms of the verb to be used in subordinate clauses. The rule is:
Verbs in subordinate sentences and clauses must be governed by the tense of the principal verb.
This rule rests on the exact meaning of the forms and words used and its application can be checked by careful examination of these meanings. "He said he did it." "He said he would do it." "He says he will do it."
Note that when the statement in the subordinate clause is of universal application the present tense is always used whatever the tense of the principal verb. "The lecturer said that warm weather always softens rollers."
Those forms of the verb which tell whether the action is an actual fact, a possibility, a condition, or a command are called moods.
There are three moods, the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative.
The indicative mood indicates that the action is a fact. It is also used in asking questions.
The subjunctive mood is less used in modern than in old English. It is most commonly found in clauses beginning with if, though if is not to be regarded as the sign of the subjunctive in any such sense as to is the sign of the infinitive.
The subjunctive were should be used in purely hypothetical clauses such as "If I were in your place."
The subjunctive be should be used in the hypothesis or supposition of a scientific demonstration,
If the triangle A be placed on the triangle B.
The subjunctive without if is often used in wishes or
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