An Elementary Study of Chemistry - William McPherson (best beach reads of all time .TXT) 📗
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Potassium chloride (KCl). This salt occurs in nature in sea water, in the mineral sylvine, and, combined with magnesium chloride, as carnallite (KCl·MgCl2·6H2O). It is prepared from carnallite by saturating boiling water with the mineral and allowing the solution to cool. The mineral decomposes while in solution, and the potassium chloride crystallizes out on cooling, while the very soluble magnesium chloride remains in solution. The salt is very similar to sodium chloride both in physical and chemical properties. It is used in the preparation of nearly all other potassium salts, and, together with potassium sulphate, is used as a fertilizer.
Potassium bromide (KBr). When bromine is added to a hot concentrated solution of potassium hydroxide there is formed a mixture of potassium bromide and potassium bromate in accordance with the reactions already discussed. There is no special use for the bromate, so the solution is evaporated to dryness, and the residue, consisting of a mixture of the bromate and bromide, is strongly heated. This changes the bromate to bromide, as follows:
The bromide is then crystallized from water, forming large colorless crystals. It is used in medicine and in photography.
Potassium iodide (KI). Potassium iodide may be made by exactly the same method as has just been described for the bromide, substituting iodine for bromine. It is more frequently made as follows. Iron filings are treated with iodine, forming the compound Fe3I8; on boiling this substance with potassium carbonate the reaction represented in the following equation occurs:
Potassium iodide finds its chief use in medicine.
Potassium chlorate (KClO3). This salt, as has just been explained, can be made by the action of chlorine on strong potassium hydroxide solutions. The chief use of potassium chlorate is as an oxidizing agent in the manufacture of matches, fireworks, and explosives; it is also used in the preparation of oxygen and in medicine.
Commercial preparation. By referring to the reaction between chlorine and hot concentrated solutions of potassium hydroxide, it will be seen that only one molecule of potassium chlorate is formed from six molecules of potassium hydroxide. Partly because of this poor yield and partly because the potassium hydroxide is rather expensive, this process is not an economical one for the preparation of potassium chlorate. The commercial method is the following. Chlorine is passed into hot solutions of calcium hydroxide, a compound which is very cheap. The resulting calcium chloride and chlorate are both very soluble. To the solution of these salts potassium chloride is added, and as the solution cools the sparingly soluble potassium chlorate crystallizes out:
Ca(ClO3)2 + 2KCl = 2KClO3 + CaCl2.
Electro-chemical processes are also used.
Potassium nitrate (saltpeter) (KNO3). This salt was formerly made by allowing animal refuse to decompose in the open air in the presence of wood ashes or earthy materials containing potassium. Under these conditions the nitrogen in the organic matter is in part converted into potassium nitrate, which was obtained by extracting the mass with water and evaporating to crystallization. This crude and slow process is now almost entirely replaced by a manufacturing process in which the potassium salt is made from Chili saltpeter:
This process has been made possible by the discovery of the Chili niter beds and the potassium chloride of the Stassfurt deposits.
The reaction depends for its success upon the apparently insignificant fact that sodium chloride is almost equally soluble in cold and hot water. All four factors in the equation are rather soluble in cold water, but in hot water sodium chloride is far less soluble than the other three. When hot saturated solutions of sodium nitrate and potassium chloride are brought together, sodium chloride precipitates and can be filtered off, leaving potassium nitrate in solution, together with some sodium chloride. On cooling, potassium nitrate crystallizes out, leaving small amounts of the other salts in solution.
Potassium nitrate is a colorless salt which forms very large crystals. It is stable in the air, and when heated is a good oxidizing agent, giving up oxygen quite readily. Its chief use is in the manufacture of gunpowder.
Gunpowder. The object sought for in the preparation of gunpowder is to secure a solid substance which will remain unchanged under ordinary conditions, but which will explode readily when ignited, evolving a large volume of gas. When a mixture of carbon and potassium nitrate is ignited a great deal of gas is formed, as will be seen from the equation
2KNO3 + 3C = CO2 + CO + N2 + K2CO3.
By adding sulphur to the mixture the volume of gas formed in the explosion is considerably increased:
2KNO3 + 3C + S = 3CO2 + N2 + K2S.
Gunpowder is simply a mechanical mixture of these three substances in the proportion required for the above reaction. While the equation represents the principal reaction, other reactions also take place. The gases formed in the explosion, when measured under standard conditions, occupy about two hundred and eighty times the volume of the original powder. Potassium sulphide (K2S) is a solid substance, and it is largely due to it that gunpowder gives off smoke and soot when it explodes. Smokeless powder consists of organic substances which, on explosion, give only colorless gases, and hence produce no smoke. Sodium nitrate is cheaper than potassium nitrate, but it is not adapted to the manufacture of the best grades of powder, since it is somewhat deliquescent and does not give up its oxygen so readily as does potassium nitrate. It is used, however, in the cheaper grades of powder, such as are employed for blasting.
Potassium cyanide (KCN). When animal matter containing nitrogen is heated with iron and potassium carbonate, complicated changes occur which result in the formation of a substance commonly called yellow prussiate of potash, which has the formula K4FeC6N6. When this substance is heated with potassium, potassium cyanide is formed:
Since sodium is much cheaper than potassium it is often used in place of it:
The mixture of cyanides so resulting serves most of the purposes of the pure salt. It is used very extensively in several metallurgical processes, particularly in the extraction of gold. Potassium cyanide is a white solid characterized by its poisonous properties, and must be used with extreme caution.
Potassium carbonate (potash) (K2CO3). This compound occurs in wood ashes in small quantities. It cannot be prepared by the Solvay process, since the acid carbonate is quite soluble in water, but is made by the Le Blanc process. Its chief use is in the manufacture of other potassium salts.
Other salts of potassium. Among the other salts of potassium frequently met with are the sulphate (K2SO4), the acid carbonate (KHCO3), the acid sulphate (KHSO4), and the acid sulphite (KHSO3). These are all white solids.
LITHIUM, RUBIDIUM, CÆSIUMOf the three remaining elements of the family—lithium, rubidium, and cæsium—lithium is by far the most common, the other two being very rare. Lithium chloride and carbonate are not infrequently found in natural mineral waters, and as these substances are supposed to increase the medicinal value of the water, they are very often added to artificial mineral waters in small quantities.
COMPOUNDS OF AMMONIUMGeneral. As explained in a previous chapter, when ammonia is passed into water the two compounds combine to form the base NH4OH, known as ammonium hydroxide. When this base is neutralized with acids there are formed the corresponding salts, known as the ammonium salts. Since the ammonium group is univalent, ammonium salts resemble those of the alkali metals in formulas; they also resemble the latter salts very much in their chemical properties, and may be conveniently described in connection with them. Among the ammonium salts the chloride, sulphate, carbonate, and sulphide are the most familiar.
Ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac) (NH4Cl). This substance is obtained by neutralizing ammonium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid. It is a colorless substance crystallizing in fine needles, and, like most ammonium salts, is very soluble in water. When placed in a tube and heated strongly it decomposes into hydrochloric acid and ammonia. When these gases reach a cooler portion of the tube they at once recombine, and the resulting ammonium chloride is deposited on the sides of the tube. In this way the salt can be separated from nonvolatile impurities. Ammonium chloride is sometimes used in preparation of ammonia; it is also used in making dry batteries and in the laboratory as a chemical reagent.
Ammonium sulphate ((NH4)2SO4). This salt resembles the chloride very closely, and, being cheaper, is used in place of it when possible. It is used in large quantity as a fertilizer, the nitrogen which it contains being a very valuable food for plants.
Ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3). This salt, as well as the acid carbonate (NH4HCO3), is used as a chemical reagent. They are colorless solids, freely soluble in water. The normal carbonate is made by heating ammonium chloride with powdered limestone (calcium carbonate), the ammonium carbonate being obtained as a sublimate in compact hard masses:
The salt always smells of ammonia, since it slowly decomposes, as shown in the equation
The acid carbonate, or bicarbonate, is prepared by saturating a solution of ammonium hydroxide with carbon dioxide:
It is a well-crystallized stable substance.
Ammonium sulphide ((NH4)2S). Ammonium sulphide is prepared by the action of hydrosulphuric acid upon ammonium hydroxide:
If the action is allowed to continue until no more hydrosulphuric acid is absorbed, the product is the acid sulphide, sometimes called the hydrosulphide:
If equal amounts of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium acid sulphide are brought together, the normal sulphide is formed:
It has been obtained in the solid state, but only with great difficulty. As used in the laboratory it is always in the form of a solution. It is much used in the process of chemical analysis because it is a soluble sulphide and easily prepared. On exposure to the air ammonium sulphide slowly decomposes, being converted into ammonia, water, and sulphur:
As fast as the sulphur is liberated it combines with the unchanged sulphide to form several different ammonium sulphides in which there are from two to five sulphur atoms in the molecule, thus: (NH4)2S2, (NH4)2S3, (NH4)2S5. These sulphides in turn decompose by further action of oxygen, so that the final products of the reaction are those given in the equation. A solution of these compounds is yellow and is sometimes called yellow ammonium sulphide.
FLAME REACTION—SPECTROSCOPE
When compounds of either sodium or potassium are brought into the non-luminous flame of a Bunsen burner the flame becomes colored. Sodium compounds color it intensely yellow, while those of potassium color it pale violet. When only one of these elements is present it is easy to identify it by this simple test, but when both are present the intense color of the sodium flame entirely conceals the pale tint characteristic of potassium compounds.
It is possible to detect the potassium flame in such cases, however, in the following way. When light is allowed to shine through a very small hole or slit in some kind of a screen, such as a piece of metal, upon a triangular prism of glass, the light is bent or refracted out of its course instead of passing straight through the glass. It thus comes out of the prism at some angle to the line
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