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one of the parameters to identify backward classes. Therefore, principally, the "Creamy layer" principle cannot be applied to STs and SCs, as SCs and STs are separate classes by themselves.

Preferably there should be a review after ten years to take note of the change of circumstances.

A graduation (not technical graduation) or professional course deemed to be educationally forward.

Principle of exclusion of Creamy layer applicable to OBC's.

The Central Government shall examine as to the desirability of fixing a cut off marks in respect of the candidates belonging to the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) to balance reservation with other societal interests and to maintain standards of excellence. This would ensure quality and merit would not suffer. If any seats remain vacant after adopting such norms they shall be filled up by candidates from general categories.

So far as determination of backward classes is concerned, a Notification should be issued by the Union of India. This can be done only after exclusion of the creamy layer for which necessary data must be obtained by the Central Government from the State Governments and Union Territories. Such Notification is open to challenge on the ground of wrongful exclusion or inclusion. Norms must be fixed keeping in view the peculiar features in different States and Union Territories. There has to be proper identification of Other Backward Classes (OBCs). For identifying backward classes, the Commission set up pursuant to the directions of this Court in Indra Sawhney, has to work more effectively and not merely decide applications for inclusion or exclusion of castes.

The Parliament should fix a deadline by which time free and compulsory education will have reached every child. This must be done within six months, as the right to free and compulsory education is perhaps the most important of all the fundamental rights (Art.21 A). For without education, it becomes extremely difficult to exercise other fundamental rights.

If material is shown to the Central Government that the Institution deserves to be included in the Schedule (institutes which are excluded from reservations) of The Central Educational Institutions (Reservation in Admission) Act, 2006 (No. 5 of 2007), the Central Government must take an appropriate decision on the basis of materials placed and on examining the concerned issues as to whether Institution deserves to be included in the Schedule of the said act as provided in Sec 4 of the said act.

Institutional Safeguards

Each Ministry / Department is required to nominate officers of the rank of Deputy Secretary or above to work as Liaison Officer who take care of implementation of instructions relating to special representation of OBCs in their respective Ministries and attached and subordinate offices. The system of nominating Liaison Officers has also been extended to the offices under the Heads of Departments. Ministries/Departments have been asked in 1969 to set up a small Cell within each Ministry/Department under the direct control of Liaison Officer to assist him to discharge his duties effectively

 

AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT - A STUDY OF BENGALURU CITY

GAJENDRA. N

Assistant Professor, New Horizon College

INTRODUCTION

Waste is a pejorative term for unwanted materials. The term can be described as subjective and inaccurate because waste to one person is not waste to another. Wastes are materials that are not prime products (that is products produced for the market) for which the initial user has no further use in terms of his/her own purposes of production, transformation or consumption, and of which he/she wants to dispose. Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, and other human activities.

Solid-waste management may be defined as the discipline associated with controlling the generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal of solid waste in a manner that is in accordance with the best principles of health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and other environmental considerations, and that is also responsive to public attitudes. In its scope, solid-waste management includes all administrative, financial, legal, planning, and engineering functions involved in the solutions to all problems of solid waste. The solutions may involve complex interdisciplinary fields such as political science, city and regional planning, geography, economics, public health, sociology, demography, communications, and conservation, as well engineering and materials science. Solid-waste management is a major problem in urban areas throughout the world. Without an effective and efficient solid-waste management program, the waste generated from various human activities, both industrial and domestic, can result in health hazards and have a negative impact on the environment. Understanding the waste generated, the availability of resources, and the environmental conditions of a particular society are important to developing an appropriate waste-management system.

There has been no major effort to create community awareness either about the likely perils due to poor waste management or the simple steps that every citizen can take which will help in reducing waste generation and promote effective management of solid waste generated. The degree of community sensitization and public awareness is low. There is no system of segregation of organic, inorganic and recyclable wastes at household level. Door to door collection is not practiced in most of the cities. It is estimated that the total solid waste generated by 300 million people living in urban India is 38 million tonnes per year. The collection and disposal of municipal solid waste is one of the pressing problems of city life, which has assumed great importance in the recent past. With the growing urbanization as a result of planned economic growth and industrialization, problems are becoming acute and call for immediate and concerted action. The proper disposal of urban waste is not only absolutely necessary for the preservation and improvement of public health but it has an immense potential for resource recovery.

It is estimated that about 1, 00,000 MT of Municipal Solid Waste is generated daily in the country. Per capita waste generation in major cities ranges from 0.20 Kg to 0.6 Kg. Generally the collection efficiency ranges between 70 to 90% in major metro cities whereas in several smaller cities the collection efficiency is below 50%. It is also estimated that the Urban Local Bodies spend about Rs.500 to Rs.1500 per tonne on solid waste for collection, transportation, treatment and disposal. About 60-70% of this amount is spent on street sweeping of waste collection, 20 to 30% on transportation and less than 5% on final disposal of waste, which shows that hardly any attention is given to scientific and safe disposal of waste. Landfill sites have not yet been identified by many municipalities and in several municipalities, the landfill sites have been exhausted and the respective local bodies do not have resources to acquire new land. Due to lack of disposal sites, even the collection efficiency gets affected. Very few Urban Local Bodies in the country have prepared long term plans for effective Solid Waste Management in their respective cities. For obtaining a long term economic solution, planning of the system on long-term sustainable basis is very essential. Rapid urbanisation and changing lifestyles have led to the generation of huge amounts of garbage and waste in the urban areas, so much so, over the past few years, just the handling this Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) has assumed the proportion of a major organizational, financial and environmental challenge.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

For the realization of the topic of research, relevant information in the international scientific arena was collected through studies of diverse literature from text books/literature, international scientific journals, environmental progress report from different agencies, Internet websites, reports by governmental agencies, substantial knowledge was gathered and a review of what other scientist have written on issues concurring with the research topic was made. At International level there are various organizations including private and government which are working in the field of environment and are engaged in research and development in the field of waste management. The international agencies like World Health Organization (WHO), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) are engaged in developing new technologies for waste management and its disposal including its characterization. The clear idea about literature review at national and international level is given below.

Benneh et al. (1993) observed that residential domestic waste forms the bulk of all sources of solid waste produced in urban areas. These household wastes are known to have high densities with high moisture content and the organic component of solid wastes, which properly accounts for about 70% to 90%, while tins, cans and paper are probably responsible for about 5% to 10% of the total waste produced. They further argued that because the capacity to handle all of the household waste generated is still weak, about 83% of the population dump refuse in either authorised or unauthorised sites in their neighbourhood which creates unsanitary conditions. They also argued that insufficient communal facilities can lead to open defecation along beaches, drains, and open spaces and the tendency for faecal materials to become intermixed with household refuse.

Lester et.al., (1999) mentioned the municipal solid waste recycling issue and they reported that Municipal solid waste (MSW) recycling targets have been set nationally and in many states but unfortunately, the definitions of recycling, rates of recycling, and the appropriate components of MSW vary. They found that MSW recycling has been found to be costly for most municipalities compared to landfill disposal. From the study they concluded that MSW recycling policy should be determined by the cost to the community and to society more generally.

Most important study carried out by Yusof et.al. (2002) which is important to determine solid waste generation of any city. They studied the role of socio-economic and cultural factors in municipal solid waste generation in Taman Perling, Johor Bahru, Malaysia. They reported that the absence of a comprehensive database on solid waste generation and composition appears to be the major drawback to the development of an integrated waste management system in Malaysia. According to Yusof et.al.Attributes as income, education, and other socioeconomic factors barely affect the amount of waste generation. Only family size and lifestyle factors, particularly the eating habits of residents, contribute significantly to variations in the generation of residential waste in Taman Perling, Johor Bahru. While, the amount increases with the size of family, it decreases as the respondents dine out more often.

Selvapathy and Madhavan, (2003) assessed the risks of dumping household batteries in the municipal solid waste. They reported the higher concentrations of the heavy metals in the leachate and non-carcinogenic risks obtained by the risk assessment study also exceeded the stipulated limit. Hence they suggested separate disposal of the battery waste considering it as a hazardous waste.

Upadhyay et.al. (2005) highlights the present scenario of waste management and the options available to convert these wastes into useful products. The change in water quality not only affects the human health but it also reduces the agricultural productivity. The polluted water changes the soil properties resulting into various hazards to the crops. Hence it is also the main area for various researchers engaged in the water quality assessment. Various researchers throughout the world focused on this issue.

Mohammad et.al., (2007) have created the water quality index for an open municipal landfill area at Kampung Sabak, Kelantan, Malaysia and South China Sea. They studied 32 variables of ground water quality and used 7 variables for creation of water quality index. After developing the index they found the index value 26.67 which indicating the poor water quality. Ramakrishnaiah et.al., 2009 carried out assessment studies of water quality index for the groundwater in Tumkur taluka, Karnataka state, India. They reported that the high value of WQI has been found to be mainly from the higher values of iron, nitrate, total dissolved solids, hardness, fluorides, bicarbonate and manganese in the groundwater and suggested treatment to the water prior to consumption.

Sharholy et.al., (2007) studied the municipal solid waste management and its characteristics for Alahabad city. During study they concluded that the segregation of waste at source and promotion of recycling or reuse of segregated materials reduces the quantity of