A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1 - Surendranath Dasgupta (free ebook reader for android .txt) 📗

one another, but which help the happening of the modification or accession of new qualities and the change of qualities of the atoms. Kâla does not bring about the changes of qualities, in things, but just as âkas'a helps interpenetration and dharma motion, so also kâla helps the action of the transformation of new qualities in things. Time perceived as moments, hours, days, etc., is called samaya. This is the appearance of the unchangeable kâla in so many forms. Kâla thus not only aids the modifications of other things, but also allows its own modifications as moments, hours, etc. It is thus a dravya (substance), and the moments, hours, etc., are its paryâyas. The unit of samaya is the time required by an atom to traverse a unit of space by a slow movement.

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[Footnote 1: Dravyasamgrahav@rtti, 19.]

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Jaina Cosmography.

According to the Jains, the world is eternal, without beginning or end. Loka is that place in which happiness and misery are experienced as results of virtue and vice. It is composed of three parts, ûrdhva (where the gods reside), madhya (this world of ours), and adho (where the denizens of hell reside). The mundane universe (lokâkas'a) is pervaded with dharma which makes all movement possible. Beyond the lokâkas'a there is no dharma and therefore no movement, but only space (âkas'a). Surrounding this lokakâs'a are three layers of air. The perfected soul rising straight over the ûrdhvaloka goes to the top of this lokakâs'a and (there being no dharma) remains motionless there.

Jaina Yoga.

Yoga according to Jainism is the cause of moksa (salvation). This yoga consists of jñana (knowledge of reality as it is), s'raddhâ (faith in the teachings of the Jinas), and caritra (cessation from doing all that is evil). This caritra consists of ahi@msâ (not taking any life even by mistake or unmindfulness), sûn@rta (speaking in such a way as is true, good and pleasing), asteya (not taking anything which has not been given), brahmacaryya (abandoning lust foi all kinds of objects, in mind, speech and body), and aparigraha (abandoning attachment for all things) [Footnote ref 1].

These strict rules of conduct only apply to ascetics who are bent on attaining perfection. The standard proposed for the ordinary householders is fairly workable. Thus it is said by Hemacandra, that ordinary householders should earn money honestly, should follow the customs of good people, should marry a good girl from a good family, should follow the customs of the country and so forth. These are just what we should expect from any good and

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[Footnote 1: Certain external rules of conduct are also called caritra. These are: Îryyâ (to go by the path already trodden by others and illuminated by the sun's rays, so that proper precaution may be taken while walking to prevent oneself from treading on insects, etc., which may be lying on the way), bhasâ (to speak well and pleasantly to all beings), isana (to beg alms in the proper monastic manner), dânasamiti (to inspect carefully the seats avoiding all transgressions when taking or giving anything), utsargasamiti (to take care that bodily refuse may not be thrown in such a way as to injure any being), manogupti (to remove all false thoughts, to remain satisfied within oneself, and hold all people to be the same in mind), vâggupti (absolute silence), and kâyagupti (absolute steadiness and fixity of the body). Five other kinds of caritra are counted in Dravyasamgrahav@rtti 35.]

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honest householder of the present day. Great stress is laid upon the virtues of ahi@msâ, sûn@rta, asteya and brahmacaryya, but the root of all these is ahi@msâ. The virtues of sûn@rta, asteya and brahmacaryya are made to follow directly as secondary corrollaries of ahi@msâ. Ahi@msâ may thus be generalized as the fundamental ethical virtue of Jainism; judgment on all actions may be passed in accordance with the standard of ahi@msâ; sûn@rta, asteya and brahmacaryya are regarded as virtues as their transgression leads to hi@msâ (injury to beings). A milder form of the practice of these virtues is expected from ordinary householders and this is called anubrata (small vows). But those who are struggling for the attainment of emancipation must practise these virtues according to the highest and strictest standard, and this is called mahâbrata (great vows). Thus for example brahmacaryya for a householder according to the anubrata standard would be mere cessation from adultery, whereas according to mahâbrata it would be absolute abstention from sex-thoughts, sex-words and sex-acts. Ahi@msâ according to a householder, according to anubrata, would require abstinence from killing any animals, but according to mahavrata it would entail all the rigour and carefulness to prevent oneself from being the cause of any kind of injury to any living being in any way.

Many other minor duties are imposed upon householders, all of which are based upon the cardinal virtue of ahi@msâ. These are (1) digvirati (to carry out activities within a restricted area and thereby desist from injuring living beings in different places), (2) bhogopabhogamâna (to desist from drinking liquors, taking flesh, butter, honey, figs, certain other kinds of plants, fruits, and vegetables, to observe certain other kinds of restrictions regarding time and place of taking meals), (3) anarthada@n@da consisting of (a) apadhyâna (cessation from inflicting any bodily injuries, killing of one's enemies, etc.), (b) pâpopades'a (desisting from advising people to take to agriculture which leads to the killing of so many insects), (c) hi@msopakâridâna (desisting from giving implements of agriculture to people which will lead to the injury of insects), (d) pramâdacara@na (to desist from attending musical parties, theatres, or reading sex-literature, gambling, etc.), (4) s'ik@sâpadabrata consisting of (a) sâmayikabrata (to try to treat all beings equally), (b) des'âvakâs'ikabrata (gradually to practise the digviratibrata more and more extensively), (c) po@sadhabrata

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(certain other kinds of restriction), (d) _atithisa@mvibhâgabrata (to make gifts to guests). All transgressions of these virtues, called aticâra, should be carefully avoided.

All perception, wisdom, and morals belong to the soul, and to know the soul as possessing these is the right knowledge of the soul. All sorrows proceeding out of want of self-knowledge can be removed only by true self-knowledge. The soul in itself is pure intelligence, and it becomes endowed with the body only on account of its karma. When by meditation, all the karmas are burnt (dhyânâgnidagdhakarma) the self becomes purified. The soul is itself the sa@msâra (the cycle of rebirths) when it is overpowered by the four ka@sâyas (passions) and the senses. The four ka@sâyas are krodha (anger), mâna (vanity and pride), mâyâ (insincerity and the tendency to dupe others), and lobha (greed). These ka@sâyas cannot be removed except by a control of the senses; and self-control alone leads to the purity of the mind (mana@hs'uddhi). Without the control of the mind no one can proceed in the path of yoga. All our acts become controlled when the mind is controlled, so those who seek emancipation should make every effort to control the mind. No kind of asceticism (tapas) can be of any good until the mind is purified. All attachment and antipathy (râgadvc@sa) can be removed only by the purification of the mind. It is by attachment and antipathy that man loses his independence. It is thus necessary for the yogin (sage) that he should be free from them and become independent in the real sense of the term When a man learns to look upon all beings with equality (samatva) he can effect such a conquest over râga and dve@sa as one could never do even by the strictest asceticism through millions of years. In order to effect this samatva towards all, we should take to the following kinds of meditation (bhâvanâ):

We should think of the transitoriness (anityatâ) of all things, that what a thing was in the morning, it is not at mid-day, what it was at mid-day it is not at night; for all things are transitory and changing. Our body, all our objects of pleasure, wealth and youth all are fleeting like dreams, or cotton particles in a whirlwind.

All, even the gods, are subject to death. All our relatives will by their works fall a prey to death. This world is thus full of misery and there is nothing which can support us in it. Thus in

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whatever way we look for anything, on which we can depend, we find that it fails us. This is called as'ara@nabhâvanâ (the meditation of helplessness).

Some are born in this world, some suffer, some reap the fruits of the karma done in another life. We are all different from one another by our surroundings, karma, by our separate bodies and by all other gifts which each of us severally enjoy. To meditate on these aspects is called ekatvabhâvanâ and anyatvabhâvanâ.

To think that the body is made up of defiled things, the flesh, blood, and bones, and is therefore impure is called as'ucibhâvanâ (meditation of the impurity of the body).

To think that if the mind is purified by the thoughts of universal friendship and compassion and the passions are removed, then only will good {s'ubha) accrue to me, but if on the contrary I commit sinful deeds and transgress the virtues, then all evil will befall me, is called âsravabhâvanâ (meditation of the befalling of evil). By the control of the âsrava (inrush of karma) comes the sa@mvara (cessation of the influx of karma) and the destruction of the karmas already accumulated leads to nîrjarâ (decay and destruction of karma matter).

Again one should think that the practice of the ten dharmas (virtues) of self control (sa@myama), truthfulness (sûn@rta), purity (s'auca), chastity (brahma), absolute want of greed (akiñcanatâ), asceticism (tapas), forbearance, patience (ks'ânti), mildness (mârdava), sincerity (@rjutâ), and freedom or emancipation from all sins (mukti} can alone help us in the achievement of the highest goal. These are the only supports to which we can look. It is these which uphold the world-order. This is called dharmasvâkhyâtatâbhâvanâ.

Again one should think of the Jaina cosmology and also of the nature of the influence of karma in producing all the diverse conditions of men. These two are called lokabhâvanâ and bodhibhâvanâ.

When by the continual practice of the above thoughts man becomes unattached to all things and adopts equality to all beings, and becomes disinclined to all worldly enjoyments, then with a mind full of peace he gets rid of all passions, and then he should take to the performance of dhyâna or meditation by deep concentration. The samatva or perfect equality of the mind and dhyâna are interdependent, so that without dhyâna there is no samatva

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and without samatva there is no dhyâna. In order to make the mind steady by dhyâna one should think of maitrî (universal friendship), pramoda (the habit of emphasizing the good sides of men), karu@nâ (universal compassion) and mâdhyastha (indifference to the wickedness of people, i.e. the habit of not taking any note of sinners). The Jaina dhyâna consists in concentrating the mind on the syllables of the Jaina prayer phrases. The dhyâna however as we have seen is only practised as an aid to making the mind steady and perfectly equal and undisturbed towards all things. Emancipation comes only as the result of the final extinction of the karma materials. Jaina yoga is thus a complete course of moral discipline which leads to the purification of the mind and is hence different from the traditional Hindu yoga of Patañjali or even of the Buddhists [Footnote ref 1].

Jaina Atheism [Footnote ref 2].

The Naiyâyikas assert that as the world is of the nature of an effect, it must have been created by an intelligent agent and this agent is Îs'vara (God). To this the Jain replies, "What does the Naiyâyika mean when he says that the world is of the nature of an effect"? Does he mean by "effect," (1) that which is made up of parts (sâvayava), or, (2) the coinherence of the causes of a non-existent thing, or, (3) that which is regarded by anyone as having been made, or, (4) that which is liable to change (vikâritvam). Again, what is meant by being "made up of parts"? If it means existence in parts, then the class-concepts (sâmânya) existing in the parts should also be regarded as effects, and hence destructible, but these the Naiyâyikas regard as being partless and eternal. If it means "that which has parts," then even "space" (âkâs'a) has to be regarded as "effect," but the Naiyâyika regards it as eternal.

Again "effect" cannot mean "coinherence of the causes of a thing which were previously non-existent," for in that case one could not speak of the world as an effect, for the atoms of the elements of earth, etc., are regarded as eternal.

Again if "effect" means "that which is regarded by anyone as

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[Footnote 1:Yogas'âstra, by Hemacandra, edited by Windisch, in Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morg. Gesellschaft, Leipsig, 1874, and Dravyasa@mgraha, edited by Ghoshal, 1917.]

[Footnote 2: See Gu@naratna's Tarkarahasyadîpikâ.]

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having been made," then it would apply even to space, for when a man digs the