A Short History of Astronomy - Arthur Berry (read along books .txt) 📗

of the spheres 24 § 24. Philolaus and other Pythagoreans: early believers in the motion of the earth: Aristarchus and Seleucus 25 § 25. Plato: uniform circular and spherical motions 26 § 26. Eudoxus: representation of the celestial motions by combinations of spheres: description of the constellations. Callippus 27 §§ 27-30. Aristotle: his spheres: the phases of the moon: proofs that the earth is spherical: his arguments against the motion of the earth: relative distances of the celestial bodies: other speculations: estimate of his astronomical work 29 §§ 31-2. The early Alexandrine school: its rise: Aristarchus: his estimates of the distances of the sun and moon. Observations by Timocharis and Aristyllus 34 §§ 33-4. Development of spherics: the Phenomena of Euclid: the horizon, the zenith, poles of a great circle, verticals, declination circles, the meridian, celestial latitude and longitude, right ascension and declination. Sun-dials 36 § 35. The division of the surface of the earth into zones 37 § 36. Eratosthenes: his measurement of the earth: and of the obliquity of the ecliptic 39 § 37. Hipparchus: his life and chief contributions to astronomy. Apollonius’s representation of the celestial motions by means of circles. General account of the theory of eccentrics and epicycles 40 §§ 38-9. Hipparchus’s representation of the motion of the sun, by means of an eccentric: apogee, perigee, line of apses, eccentricity: equation of the centre: the epicycle and the deferent 41 § 40. Theory of the moon: lunation or synodic month and sidereal month: motion of the moon’s nodes and apses: draconitic month and anomalistic month 47 § 41. Observations of planets: eclipse method of connecting the distances of the sun and moon: estimate of their distances 49 § 42. His star catalogue. Discovery of the precession of the equinoxes: the tropical year and the sidereal year 51 § 43. Eclipses of the sun and moon: conjunction and opposition: partial, total, and annular eclipses: parallax 56 § 44. Delambre’s estimate of Hipparchus 61 § 45. The slow progress of astronomy after the time of Hipparchus: Pliny’s proof that the earth is round: new measurements of the earth by Posidonius 61 § 46. Ptolemy. The Almagest and the Optics: theory of refraction 62 § 47. Account of the Almagest: Ptolemy’s postulates: arguments against the motion of the earth 63 § 48. The theory of the moon: evection and prosneusis 65 § 49. The astrolabe. Parallax, and distances of the sun and moon 67 § 50. The star catalogue: precession 68 § 51. Theory of the planets: the equant 69 § 52. Estimate of Ptolemy 73 § 53. The decay of ancient astronomy: Theon and Hypatia 73 § 54. Summary and estimate of Greek astronomy 74 CHAPTER III. The Middle Ages (from about 600 a.d. to about 1500 a.d.), §§ 55-69 76-91 § 55. The slow development of astronomy during this period 76 § 56. The East. The formation of an astronomical school at the court of the Caliphs: revival of astrology: translations from the Greek by Honein ben Ishak, Ishak ben Honein, Tabit ben Korra, and others 76 §§ 57-8. The Bagdad observatory. Measurement of the earth. Corrections of the astronomical data of the Greeks: trepidation 78 § 59. Albategnius: discovery of the motion of the sun’s apogee 79 § 60. Abul Wafa: supposed discovery of the variation of the moon. Ibn Yunos: the Hakemite Tables 79 § 61. Development of astronomy in the Mahometan dominions in Morocco and Spain: Arzachel: the Toletan Tables 80 § 62. Nassir Eddin and his school: Ilkhanic Tables: more accurate value of precession 81 § 63. Tartar astronomy: Ulugh Begh: his star catalogue 82 § 64. Estimate of oriental astronomy of this period: Arabic numerals: survivals of Arabic names of stars and astronomical terms: nadir 82 § 65. The West. General stagnation after the fall of the Roman Empire: Bede. Revival of learning at the court of Charlemagne: Alcuin 83 § 66. Influence of Mahometan learning: Gerbert: translations from the Arabic: Plato of Tivoli, Athelard of Bath, Gherardo of Cremona. Alfonso X. and his school: the Alfonsine Tables and the Libros del Saber 84 § 67. The schoolmen of the thirteenth century, Albertus Magnus, Cecco d’Ascoli, Roger Bacon. Sacrobosco’s Sphaera Mundi 85 § 68. Purbach and Regiomontanus: influence of the original Greek authors: the Nürnberg school: Walther: employment of printing: conflict between the views of Aristotle and of Ptolemy: the celestial spheres of the Middle Ages: the firmament and the primum mobile 86 § 69. Lionardo da Vinci: earthshine. Fracastor and Apian: observations of comets. Nonius. Fernel’s measurement of the earth 90 CHAPTER IV. Coppernicus (from 1473 a.d. to 1543 a.d.), §§ 70-92 92-124 § 70. The Revival of Learning 92 §§ 71-4. Life of Coppernicus: growth of his ideas: publication of the Commentariolus: Rheticus and the Prima Narratio: publication of the De Revolutionibus 93 § 75. The central idea in the work of Coppernicus: relation to earlier writers 99 §§ 76-9. The De Revolutionibus. The first book: the postulates: the principle of relative motion, with applications to the apparent annual motion of the sun, and to the daily motion of the celestial sphere 100 § 80. The two motions of the earth: answers to objections 105 § 81. The motion of the planets 106 § 82. The seasons 108 § 83. End of first book. The second book: decrease in the obliquity of the ecliptic: the star catalogue 110 § 84. The third book: precession 110 § 85. The third book: the annual motion of the earth: aphelion and perihelion. The fourth book: theory of the moon: distances of the sun and moon: eclipses 111 §§ 86-7. The fifth and sixth books: theory of the planets: synodic and sidereal periods 112 § 88. Explanation of the stationary points 118 §§ 89-90. Detailed theory of the planets: defects of the theory 121 § 91. Coppernicus’s use of epicycles 122 § 92. A difficulty in his system 123 CHAPTER V. The Reception of the Coppernican Theory and the Progress of Observation (from about 1543 a.d. to about 1601 a.d.), §§ 93-112 125-144 §§ 93-4. The first reception of the De Revolutionibus: Reinhold: the Prussian Tables 125 § 95. Coppernicanism in England: Field, Recorde, Digges 127 § 96. Difficulties in the Coppernican system: the need for progress in dynamics and for fresh observations 127 §§ 97-8. The Cassel Observatory: the Landgrave William IV., Rothmann, and Bürgi: the star catalogue: Bürgi’s invention of the pendulum clock 128 § 99. Tycho Brahe: his early life 130 § 100. The new star of 1572: travels in Germany 131 §§ 101-2. His establishment in Hveen: Uraniborg and Stjerneborg: life and work in Hveen 132 § 103. The comet of 1577, and others 135 § 104. Books on the new star and on the comet of 1577 136 § 105. Tycho’s system of the world: quarrel with Reymers Bär 136 § 106. Last years at Hveen: breach with the King 138 § 107. Publication of the Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica and of the star catalogue: invitation from the Emperor 139 § 108. Life at Benatek: co-operation of Kepler: death 140 § 109. Fate of Tycho’s instruments and observations 141 § 110. Estimate of Tycho’s work: the accuracy of his observations: improvements in the art of observing 141 § 111. Improved values of astronomical constants. Theory of the moon: the variation and the annual equation 143 § 112. The star catalogue: rejection of trepidation: unfinished work on the planets 144 CHAPTER VI. Galilei (from 1564 a.d. to 1642 a.d.), §§ 113-134 145-178 § 113. Early life 145 § 114. The pendulum 146 § 115. Diversion from medicine to mathematics: his first book 146 § 116. Professorship at Pisa: experiments on falling bodies: protests against the principle of authority 147 § 117. Professorship at Padua: adoption of Coppernican views 148 § 118. The telescopic discoveries. Invention of the telescope by Lippersheim: its application to astronomy by Harriot, Simon Marius, and Galilei 149 § 119. The Sidereus Nuncius: observations of the moon 150 § 120. New stars: resolution of portions of the Milky Way 151 § 121. The discovery of Jupiter’s satellites: their importance for the Coppernican controversy: controversies 151 § 122. Appointment at the Tuscan court 153 § 123. Observations of Saturn. Discovery of the phases of Venus 154 § 124. Observations of sun-spots by Fabricius, Harriot, Scheiner, and Galilei: the Macchie Solari: proof that the spots were not planets: observations of the umbra and penumbra 154 § 125. Quarrel with Scheiner and the Jesuits: theological controversies: Letter to the Grand Duchess Christine 157 § 126. Visit to Rome. The first condemnation: prohibition of Coppernican books 159 § 127. Method for finding longitude. Controversy on comets: Il Saggiatore 160 § 128. Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World. Its preparation and publication 162 § 129. The speakers: argument for the Coppernican system based on the telescopic discoveries: discussion of stellar parallax: the differential method of parallax 163 § 130. Dynamical arguments in favour of the motion of the earth: the First Law of Motion. The tides 165 § 131. The trial and condemnation. The thinly veiled Coppernicanism of the Dialogue: the remarkable preface 168 § 132. Summons to Rome: trial by the Inquisition: condemnation, abjuration, and punishment: prohibition of the Dialogue 169 § 133. Last years: life at Arcetri: libration of the moon: the Two New Sciences: uniform acceleration, and the first law of motion. Blindness and death 172 § 134. Estimate of Galilei’s work: his scientific method 176 CHAPTER VII. Kepler (from 1571 a.d. to 1630 a.d.), §§ 135-151 179-197 § 135. Early life and theological studies 179 § 136. Lectureship on mathematics at Gratz: astronomical studies and speculations: the Mysterium Cosmographicum 180 § 137. Religious troubles in Styria: work with Tycho 181 § 138. Appointment by the Emperor Rudolph as successor to Tycho: writings on the new star of 1604 and on Optics: theory of refraction and a new form of telescope 182 § 139. Study of the motion of Mars: unsuccessful attempts to explain it 183 §§ 140-1. The ellipse: discovery of the first two of Kepler’s Laws for the case of Mars: the Commentaries on Mars 184 § 142. Suggested extension of Kepler’s Laws to the other planets 186 § 143. Abdication and death of Rudolph: appointment at Linz 188 § 144. The Harmony of the World: discovery of Kepler’s Third Law: the “music of the spheres”