A Short History of Astronomy - Arthur Berry (read along books .txt) 📗

class="tdrb">188 § 145. Epitome of the Copernican Astronomy: its prohibition: fanciful correction of the distance of the sun: observation of the sun’s corona 191 § 146. Treatise on Comets 193 § 147. Religious troubles at Linz: removal to Ulm 194 § 148. The Rudolphine Tables 194 § 149. Work Under Wallenstein: death 195 § 150. Minor discoveries: speculations on gravity 195 § 151. Estimate of Kepler’s work and intellectual character 197 CHAPTER VIII. From Galilei to Newton (from about 1638 a.d. to about 1687 a.d.), §§ 152-163 198-209 § 152. The general character of astronomical progress during the period 198 § 153. Scheiner’s observations of faculae on the sun. Hevel: his Selenographia and his writings on comets: his star catalogue. Riccioli’s New Almagest 198 § 154. Planetary observations; Huygens’s discovery of a satellite of Saturn and of its ring 199 § 155. Gascoigne’s and Auzout’s invention of the micrometer: Picard’s telescopic “sights” 202 § 156. Horrocks: extension of Kepler’s theory to the moon: observation of a transit of Venus 202 §§ 157-8. Huygens’s rediscovery of the pendulum clock: his theory of circular motion 203 § 159. Measurements of the earth by Snell, Norwood, and Picard 204 § 160. The Paris Observatory: Domenico Cassini: his discoveries of four new satellites of Saturn: his other work 204 § 161. Richer’s expedition to Cayenne: pendulum observations: observations of Mars in opposition: horizontal parallax: annual or stellar parallax 205 § 162. Roemer and the velocity of light 208 § 163. Descartes 208 CHAPTER IX. Universal Gravitation (from 1643 a.d. to 1727 a.d.), §§ 164-195 210-246 § 164. Division of Newton’s life into three periods 210 § 165. Early life, 1643 to 1665 210 § 166. Great productive period, 1665-87 211 § 167. Chief divisions of his work: astronomy, optics, pure mathematics 211 § 168. Optical discoveries: the reflecting telescopes of Gregory and Newton: the spectrum 211 § 169. Newton’s description of his discoveries in 1665-6 212 § 170. The beginning of his work on gravitation: the falling apple: previous contributions to the subject by Kepler, Borelli, and Huygens 213 § 171. The problem of circular motion: acceleration 214 § 172. The law of the inverse square obtained from Kepler’s Third Law for the planetary orbits, treated as circles 215 § 173. Extension of the earth’s gravity as far as the moon: imperfection of the theory 217 § 174. Hooke’s and Wren’s speculations on the planetary motions and on gravity. Newton’s second calculation of the motion of the moon: agreement with observation 221 § 175-6. Solution of the problem of elliptic motion: Halley’s visit to Newton 221 § 177. Presentation to the Royal Society of the tract De Motu: publication of the Principia 222 § 178. The Principia: its divisions 223 §§ 179-80. The Laws of Motion: the First Law: acceleration in its general form: mass and force: the Third Law 223 § 181. Law of universal gravitation enunciated 227 § 182. The attraction of a sphere 228 § 183. The general problem of accounting for the motions of the solar system by means of gravitation and the Laws of Motion: perturbations 229 § 184. Newton’s lunar theory 230 § 185. Measurement of the mass of a planet by means of its attraction of its satellites 231 § 186. Motion of the sun: centre of gravity of the solar system: relativity of motion 231 § 187. The non-spherical form of the earth, and of Jupiter 233 § 188. Explanation of precession 234 § 189. The tides: the mass of the moon deduced from tidal observations 235 § 190. The motions of comets: parabolic orbits 237 § 191. Reception of the Principia 239 § 192. Third period of Newton’s life, 1687-1727: Parliamentary career: improvement of the lunar theory: appointments at the Mint and removal to London: publication of the Optics and of the second and third editions of the Principia, edited by Cotes and Pemberton: death 240 § 193. Estimates of Newton’s work by Leibniz, by Lagrange, and by himself 241 § 194. Comparison of his astronomical work with that of his predecessors: “explanation” and “description”: conception of the material universe as made up of bodies attracting one another according to certain laws 242 § 195. Newton’s scientific method: “Hypotheses non fingo” 245 CHAPTER X. Observational Astronomy in the Eighteenth Century, §§ 196-227 247-286 § 196. Gravitational astronomy: its development due almost entirely to Continental astronomers: use of analysis: English observational astronomy 247 §§ 197-8. Flamsteed: foundation of the Greenwich Observatory: his star catalogue 249 § 199. Halley: catalogue of Southern stars 253 § 200. Halley’s comet 253 § 201. Secular acceleration of the moon’s mean motion 254 § 202. Transits of Venus 254 § 203. Proper motions of the fixed stars 255 §§ 204-5. Lunar and planetary tables: career at Greenwich: minor work 255 § 206. Bradley: career 257 §§ 207-11. Discovery and explanation of aberration: the constant of aberration 258 § 212. Failure to detect parallax 265 §§ 213-5. Discovery of nutation: Machin 265 §§ 216-7. Tables of Jupiter’s satellites by Bradley and by Wargentin: determination of longitudes, and other work 269 § 218. His observations: reduction 271 § 219. The density of the earth: Maskelyne: the Cavendish experiment 273 § 220. The Cassini-Maraldi school in France 275 § 221. Measurements of the earth: the Lapland and Peruvian arcs: Maupertuis 275 §§ 222-4. Lacaille: his career: expedition to the Cape: star catalogues, and other work 279 §§ 225-6. Tobias Mayer: his observations: lunar tables: the longitude prize 282 § 227. The transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769: distance of the sun 284 CHAPTER XI. Gravitational Astronomy in the Eighteenth Century, §§ 228-250 287-322 § 228. Newton’s problem: the problem of three bodies: methods of approximation: lunar theory and planetary theory 287 § 229. The progress of Newtonian principles in France: popularisation by Voltaire. The five great mathematical astronomers: the pre-eminence of France 290 § 230. Euler: his career: St. Petersburg and Berlin: extent of his writings 291 § 231. Clairaut: figure of the earth: return of Halley’s comet 293 § 232. D’Alembert: his dynamics: precession and nutation: his versatility: rivalry with Clairaut 295 §§ 233-4. The lunar theories and lunar tables of Euler, Clairaut, and D’Alembert: advance on Newton’s lunar theory 297 § 235. Planetary theory: Clairaut’s determination of the masses of the moon and of Venus: Lalande 299 § 236. Euler’s planetary theory: method of the variation of elements or parameters 301 § 237. Lagrange: his career: Berlin and Paris: the Mécanique Analytique 304 § 238. Laplace: his career: the Mécanique Céleste and the Système du Monde: political appointments and distinctions 306 § 239. Advance made by Lagrange and Laplace on the work of their immediate predecessors 308 § 240. Explanation of the moon’s secular acceleration by Laplace 308 § 241. Laplace’s lunar theory: tables of Bürg and Burckhardt 309 § 242. Periodic and secular inequalities 310 § 243. Explanation of the mutual perturbation of Jupiter and Saturn: long inequalities 312 §§ 244-5. Theorems on the stability of the solar system: the eccentricity fund and the inclination fund 313 § 246. The magnitudes of some of the secular inequalities 318 § 247. Periodical inequalities: solar and planetary tables Mécanique Céleste 318 § 248. Minor problems of gravitational astronomy: the satellites: Saturn’s ring: precession and nutation: figure of the earth: tides: comets: masses of planets and satellites 318 § 249. The solution of Newton’s problem by the astronomers of the eighteenth century 319 § 250. The nebular hypothesis: its speculative character 320 CHAPTER XII. Herschel (from 1738 a.d. to 1822 a.d.), §§ 251-271 323-353 §§ 251-2. William Herschel’s early career: Bath: his first telescope 323 §§ 253-4. The discovery of the planet Uranus, and its consequences: Herschel’s removal to Slough 325 § 255. Telescope-making: marriage: the forty-foot telescope: discoveries of satellites of Saturn and of Uranus 327 § 256. Life and work at Slough: last years: Caroline Herschel 328 § 257. Herschel’s astronomical programme: the study of the fixed stars 330 § 258. The distribution of the stars in space: star-gauging: the “grindstone” theory of the universe: defects of the fundamental assumption: its partial withdrawal. Employment of brightness as a test of nearness: measurement of brightness: “space-penetrating” power of a telescope 332 § 259. Nebulae and star clusters: Herschel’s great catalogues 336 § 260. Relation of nebulae to star clusters: the “island universe” theory of nebulae: the “shining fluid” theory: distribution of nebulae 337 § 261. Condensation of nebulae into clusters and stars 339 § 262. The irresolvability of the Milky Way 340 § 263. Double stars: their proposed employment for finding parallax: catalogues: probable connection between members of a pair 341 § 264. Discoveries of the revolution of double stars: binary stars: their uselessness for parallax 343 § 265. The motion of the sun in space: the various positions suggested for the apex 344 § 266. Variable stars: Mira and Algol: catalogues of comparative brightness: method of sequences: variability of α Herculis 346 § 267. Herschel’s work on the solar system: new satellites: observations of Saturn, Jupiter, Venus, and Mars 348 § 268. Observations of the sun: Wilson: theory of the structure of the sun 350 § 269. Suggested variability of the sun 351 § 270. Other researches 352 § 271. Comparison of Herschel with his contemporaries: Schroeter 352 CHAPTER XIII. The Nineteenth Century, §§ 272-320 354-409 § 272. The three chief divisions of astronomy, observational, gravitational, and descriptive 354 § 273. The great growth of descriptive astronomy in the nineteenth century 355 § 274. Observational Astronomy. Instrumental advances: the introduction of photography 357 § 275. The method of least squares: Legendre and Gauss 357 § 276. Other work by Gauss: the Theoria Motus: rediscovery of the minor planet Ceres 358 § 277. Bessel: his improvement in methods of reduction: his table of refraction: the Fundamenta Nova and Tabulae Regiomontanae 359 § 278. The parallax of 61 Cygni: its distance 360 § 279. Henderson’s parallax of α Centauri and Struve’s of Vega: later parallax determinations 362 § 280. Star catalogues: the photographic chart 362 §§ 281-4. The distance of the sun: transits of Venus: observations of Mars and of the minor