The Evolution of Man, vol 1 - Ernst Haeckel (funny books to read .TXT) 📗

Wolff’s chief successor, Karl Ernst von Baer, came to Wurtzburg. Baer’s conversations with Dollinger on embryology led to a fresh series of most extensive investigations.

Dollinger had expressed a wish that some young scientist should begin again under his guidance an independent inquiry into the development of the chick during the hatching of the egg. As neither he nor Baer had money enough to pay for an incubator and the proper control of the experiments, and for a competent artist to illustrate the various stages observed, the lead of the enterprise was given to Christian Pander, a wealthy friend of Baer’s who had been induced by Baer to come to Wurtzburg. An able engraver, Dalton, was engaged to do the copper-plates. In a short time the embryology of the chick, in which Baer was taking the greatest indirect interest, was so far advanced that Pander was able to sketch the main features of it on the ground of Wolff’s theory in the dissertation he published in 1817. He clearly enunciated the theory of germinal layers which Wolff had anticipated, and established the truth of Wolff’s idea of a development of the complicated systems of organs out of simple leaf-shaped primitive structures. According to Pander, the leaf-shaped object in the hen’s egg divides, before the incubation has proceeded twelve hours, into two different layers, an external serous layer and an internal mucous layer; between the two there develops later a third layer, the vascular (blood-vessel) layer. ( The technical terms which are bound to creep into this chapter will be fully understood later on.—Translator.)

Karl Ernst von Baer, who had set afoot Pander’s investigation, and had shown the liveliest interest in it after Pander’s departure from Wurtzburg, began his own much more comprehensive research in 1819. He published the mature result nine years afterwards in his famous work, Animal Embryology: Observation and Reflection (not translated). This classic work still remains a model of careful observation united to profound philosophic speculation. The first part appeared in 1828, the second in 1837. The book proved to be the foundation on which the whole science of embryology has built down to our own day. It so far surpassed its predecessors, and Pander in particular, that it has become, after Wolff’s work, the chief base of modern embryology.

Baer was one of the greatest scientists of the nineteenth century, and exercised considerable influence on other branches of biology as well.

He built up the theory of germinal layers, as a whole and in detail, so clearly and solidly that it has been the starting-point of embryological research ever since. He taught that in all the vertebrates first two and then four of these germinal layers are formed; and that the earliest rudimentary organs of the body arise by the conversion of these layers into tubes. He described the first appearance of the vertebrate embryo, as it may be seen in the globular yelk of the fertilised egg, as an oval disk which first divides into two layers. From the upper or animal layer are developed all the organs which accomplish the phenomena of animal life—the functions of sensation and motion, and the covering of the body. From the lower or vegetative layer come the organs which effect the vegetative life of the organism—nutrition, digestion, blood-formation, respiration, secretion, reproduction, etc.

Each of these original layers divides, according to Baer, into two thinner and superimposed layers or plates. He calls the two plates of the animal layer, the skin-stratum and muscle-stratum. From the upper of these plates, the skin-stratum, the external skin, or outer covering of the body, the central nervous system, and the sense-organs, are formed. From the lower, or muscle-stratum, the muscles, or fleshy parts and the bony skeleton—in a word, the motor organs—are evolved. In the same way, Baer said, the lower or vegetative layer splits into two plates, which he calls the vascular-stratum and the mucous-stratum. From the outer of the two (the vascular) the heart, blood-vessels, spleen, and the other vascular glands, the kidneys, and sexual glands, are formed. From the fourth or mucous layer, in fine, we get the internal and digestive lining of the alimentary canal and all its dependencies, the liver, lungs, salivary glands, etc. Baer had, in the main, correctly judged the significance of these four secondary embryonic layers, and he followed the conversion of them into the tube-shaped primitive organs with great perspicacity. He first solved the difficult problem of the transformation of this four-fold, flat, leaf-shaped, embryonic disk into the complete vertebrate body, through the conversion of the layers or plates into tubes. The flat leaves bend themselves in obedience to certain laws of growth; the borders of the curling plates approach nearer and nearer; until at last they come into actual contact. Thus out of the flat gut-plate is formed a hollow gut-tube, out of the flat spinal plate a hollow nerve-tube, from the skin-plate a skin-tube, and so on.

Among the many great services which Baer rendered to embryology, especially vertebrate embryology, we must not forget his discovery of the human ovum. Earlier scientists had, as a rule, of course, assumed that man developed out of an egg, like the other animals. In fact, the preformation theory held that the germs of the whole of humanity were stored already in Eve’s ova. But the real ovum escaped detection until the year 1827. This ovum is extremely small, being a tiny round vesicle about the 1/120 of an inch in diameter; it can be seen under very favourable circumstances with the naked eye as a tiny particle, but is otherwise quite invisible. This particle is formed in the ovary inside a much larger globule, which takes the name of the Graafian follicle, from its discoverer, Graaf, and had previously been regarded as the true ovum. However, in 1827 Baer proved that it was not the real ovum, which is much smaller, and is contained within the follicle. (Compare the end of Chapter 2.29.) Baer was also the first to observe what is known as the segmentation sphere of the vertebrate; that is to say, the round vesicle which first develops out of the impregnated ovum, and the thin wall of which is made up of a single layer of regular, polygonal (many-cornered) cells (see the illustration in Chapter 1.12). Another discovery of his that was of great importance in constructing the vertebrate stem and the characteristic organisation of this extensive group (to which man belongs) was the detection of the axial rod, or the chorda dorsalis.

There is a long, round, cylindrical rod of cartilage which runs down the longer axis of the vertebrate embryo; it appears at an early stage, and is the first sketch of the spinal column, the solid skeletal axis of the vertebrate. In the lowest of the vertebrates, the amphioxus, the internal skeleton consists only of this cord throughout life. But even in the case of man and all the higher vertebrates it is round this cord that the spinal column and the brain are afterwards formed.

However, important as these and many other discoveries of Baer’s were in vertebrate embryology, his researches were even more influential, from the circumstance that he was the first to employ the comparative method in studying the development of the animal frame. Baer occupied himself chiefly with the embryology of vertebrates (especially the birds and fishes). But he by no means confined his attention to these, gradually taking the various groups of the invertebrates into his sphere of study. As the general result of his comparative embryological research, Baer distinguished four different modes of development and four corresponding groups in the animal world. These chief groups or types are: 1, the vertebrata; 2, the articulata; 3, the mollusca; and 4, all the lower groups which were then wrongly comprehended under the general name of the radiata. Georges Cuvier had been the first to formulate this distinction, in 1812. He showed that these groups present specific differences in their whole internal structure, and the connection and disposal of their systems of organs; and that, on the other hand, all the animals of the same type—say, the vertebrates—essentially agreed in their inner structure, in spite of the greatest superficial differences. But Baer proved that these four groups are also quite differently developed from the ovum; and that the series of embryonic forms is the same throughout for animals of the same type, but different in the case of other animals. Up to that time the chief aim in the classification of the animal kingdom was to arrange all the animals from lowest to highest, from the infusorium to man, in one long and continuous series. The erroneous idea prevailed nearly everywhere that there was one uninterrupted chain of evolution from the lowest animal to the highest. Cuvier and Baer proved that this view was false, and that we must distinguish four totally different types of animals, on the ground of anatomic structure and embryonic development.

Baer’s epoch-making works aroused an extraordinary and widespread interest in embryological research. Immediately afterwards we find a great number of observers at work in the newly opened field, enlarging it in a very short time with great energy by their various discoveries in detail. Next to Baer’s comes the admirable work of Heinrich Rathke, of Konigsberg (died 1860); he made an extensive study of the embryology, not only of the invertebrates (crustaceans, insects, molluscs), but also, and particularly, of the vertebrates (fishes, tortoises, serpents, crocodiles, etc.). We owe the first comprehensive studies of mammal embryology to the careful research of Wilhelm Bischoff, of Munich; his embryology of the rabbit (1840), the dog (1842), the guinea-pig (1852), and the doe (1854), still form classical studies. About the same time a great impetus was given to the embryology of the invertebrates. The way was opened through this obscure province by the studies of the famous Berlin zoologist, Johannes Muller, on the echinoderms. He was followed by Albert Kolliker, of Wurtzburg, writing on the cuttlefish (or the cephalopods), Siebold and Huxley on worms and zoophytes, Fritz Muller (Desterro) on the crustacea, Weismann on insects, and so on. The number of workers in this field has greatly increased of late, and a quantity of new and astonishing discoveries have been made. One notices, in several of these recent works on embryology, that their authors are too little acquainted with comparative anatomy and classification. Palaeontology is, unfortunately, altogether neglected by many of these new workers, although this interesting science furnishes most important facts for phylogeny, and thus often proves of very great service in ontogeny.

A very important advance was made in our science in 1839, when the cellular theory was established, and a new field of inquiry bearing on embryology was suddenly opened. When the famous botanist, M.

Schleiden, of Jena, showed in 1838, with the aid of the microscope, that every plant was made up of innumerable elementary parts, which we call cells, a pupil of Johannes Muller at Berlin, Theodor Schwann, applied the discovery at once to the animal organism. He showed that in the animal body as well, when we examine its tissues in the microscope, we find these cells everywhere to be the elementary units.

All the different tissues of the organism, especially the very dissimilar tissues of the nerves, muscles, bones, external skin, mucous lining, etc., are originally formed out of cells; and this is also true of all the tissues of the plant. These cells are separate living beings; they are the citizens of the State which the entire multicellular organism seems to be. This important discovery was bound to be of service to embryology, as it raised a number of new questions. What is the relation of the cells to the germinal layers?

Are the germinal layers composed of cells, and what is their relation to the cells of the tissues that form later? How does the ovum stand in the cellular theory? Is the