Sequential Problem Solving - Fredric B. Lozo (beautiful books to read TXT) 📗

We are constantly trying to make some sense of our world and the way people treat each other. The purpose of this book is to provide a systematic way of analyzing situations and planning actions.

Sequential Problem Solving is written for those who want to reassure themselves that their thinking is logically correct rather than emotionally or impulsively misguided. It provides step by step procedures for applying computer-like decision making to daily living. Many ordinary problems involve not only physical, concrete parts but also interpersonal elements. Thus problem solving involves both the physical world and the interpersonal world. For instance, when solutions to physical problems are implemented, the job manager must decide which of several leadership-managerial styles is appropriate. Are the workers mature enough and knowledgeable enough to work together as a team without supervision, or are the workers so immature and unruly that an authoritarian task master leadership style will be required, or will the workers need a teacher-leader for some period of time before they become a team?

The underlying principle, throughout Sequential Problem Solving, is an obligation to help each other as citizens of a world community, and an acknowledgement that our real enemy is often ourselves. Our common problem is understanding ourselves in order to be a friend to others. Sequential Problem Solving provides us with a way of checking for the kindness factor in problem solving, with the goal of helping others and being a good citizen in the world community.

A separate section, Dealing with Unattached People, is devoted to the problem of neighbors in the world community who are untrustworthy for some period of time, from the view point that today's enemies are tomorrow's friends.

Some neighbors in the world community are, from time to time, untrustworthy. Since opportunities for misunderstanding are greater in a climate of mistrust, later sections are included that deal with mistrust and ways that we can gauge interpersonal situations and select an appropriate leadership style to match it.

Sequential Problem Solving begins with the mechanics of learning and the role of memorization in learning. The techniques of effective memorization follow, as well as other important learning skills.

This book contains many step by step checklists, much like pilots use to make certain that things of importance are not overlooked. These individual checklists are tied together in a broad flowchart that provides a sequential decision making pathway. The contents of the checklists are things that many adults utilize instinctively, without conscious thought. However these checklist can provide adults with a more positive way of checking their own thinking, in times of stress, and a way for students to become instinctive users of sound logic practices. Teachers may find that students instantaneously begin to act more mature because of the realization that their peers have a common body of knowledge about values and character traits and checklists to evaluate the behavior of others. For teachers, the sequence of presentation here can be readily altered to suit the teachable moment, that moment when a unique, high interest situation arises that lends itself to discussion of a particular topic. The sequence presented here is merely one way in which the various interlocking subjects can be presented.

This presentation is intentionally concise to provide the reader with a composite picture of the use of checklists in logical thinking, without burdening the reader with statistical findings or repetitious historical background information.

The ideas presented here are referenced to credible academic research wherever possible. Endnotes are used extensively to direct the reader to in-depth authoritative resources, and additional references are provided for each section at the back of the book.

In this book I have used the pronoun "he" for humanity in general, rather than using he/she or similar conventions. This usage was selected to enhance the flow of the written word and should not be taken literally. The word "he" is used here to include both women and men and applies to them with equality.

Solving problems is a daily, if not hourly, part of our lives. It is therefore useful to put the mechanics of problem solving and human interpersonal relationships into flowchart form, so that when stress is intense we have some way of making more certain that we are thinking flawlessly. The following is such a flowchart

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RESEARCH SKILLS.

RAPID READING.

Effective learners use certain reading techniques [1] that greatly increase both their comprehension and the time required to learn new subjects.

One useful method of reducing new material learning time is the SQ3R method [2]:

Scan.

Question.

Read.

Review.

Recite.

Scanning provides a rapid overview. Many well written books follow logical outlines that can orient the reader to the subject matter. The outline might follow this pattern:

Title.
Table of Contents.
Main Introduction and conclusion.
Chapter 1.
   Introduction.
   Conclusion.
Chapter 2.
Chapter 3.
Conclusion.
Definitions.

Questioning is a natural, instinctive, second step that most learners follow. In the scanning process, certain questions naturally arise. These should be noted in a short list of questions to be answered through reading. The questioning procedure helps the reader stay focused.

Reading occurs very rapidly if a systematic plan is followed:

First, determine the main idea from the title, the first paragraph, and the last paragraph.

Second, determine if a large subject is divided into smaller subjects with some outlining scheme.

Next, follow the title, introduction, body, conclusion rule to find the main idea of each smaller section. Each smaller section can then be scanned for keywords. Keyword recognition signals the reader to pay closer attention for critical definitions and ideas that follow.

Finally, review as often as necessary to keep focused. Outlining and note taking often help.

Reviewing new material on a strict schedule is necessary to solidify new material in the memory, and to transfer it from short term memory to long term memory.

Forgetfulness is a matter of periodic review. Memorization through repetition and forgetfulness follow a similar pattern. Each is gained or lost by halves for the same time period. The following graph illustrates the phenomenon.

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The memory loss/recall increase with review phenomenon has been verified many times. [3]

Generally memory is lost by one-half for each doubled time increment. One day after first learning one-half is lost. By day two, one-half of that remaining memory is lost, and by day four, one-half again is lost. By day four, only one-sixteenth of the original memory is intact.

At a similar rate, with review after one day only one-half of the material that was reviewed will be lost. If reviewed again on day two, the amount lost is again divided by two. If reviewed six  times in a thirty-two day period, the about retained will be more than ninety-eight percent and the amount lost will only be about two per-cent in the next thirty-two days versus fifty per-cent in one day.

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MEMORIZATION

Three common ways of remembering are: repetition, association, and exaggeration. [4] An similar skill is outlining, and samples of various outlining styles can be found in Appendix 1.

Repetition is the key to long term memory. Physiologically, when brain cells are activated by the memory process, the nerve cell coating, known as the glial sheath, increases in thickness and becomes thicker and thicker with each repetition, strengthening the electrical pathway in brain that constitutes memory. In addition, when associations between parts of a thing remembered are formed, the nerve cell body sends out axon runners to other associated memory cells. These axon runners from one cell connect through synapses to dendrite runners on other cells. As the axon-dendrite pathway is used repetitiously, the surrounding glial cells become larger and more tightly wrapped around the electrically conductive axon-dendrite pathways, thereby transforming the memory from a short-term memory to a long-term memory. [5]

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Memories of similar objects reside in nearby regions of the brain, while memories of exotic or exaggerated objects are farther away. By forming memories with creative and unusual associations, many more pathways are established, much like a spider weaving a bigger and bigger web, in which each part leads to the center by many interconnected pathways.

Memory links are also established when a variety of sensations and muscular activity are engaged. Indeed, some people seem to be more proficient at learning by either seeing, hearing or writing, but no one method can provide the more numerous pathways provided by all three in combination.

Memory is enhanced not only by repetition, but also by association and exaggeration of certain features of the object. Many memories are recalled as series of objects. For instance, a memory device to remember four common logical fallacies is a picture of the Earth, with the green continents and blue oceans, viewed from outer space with a flight of white geese circling around it. This image is used to recall the statement "geese circle every continent." The first letters of that statement (gcec) stand for the logic fallacies of generalization, circularities, either/or, and cause and effect. (These fallacies are discussed in detail in a later chapter.)

Size, also, seems to play a role in memorization. During the Middle Ages, memory contests were held annually. In one, the winner remembered one hundred thousand sequential items. [6] A time-proven memory method from the Middle Ages is association of abstract ideas to large objects. The objects used for trigger recall seem to need to be about the size of a human, so that,