From Newton to Einstein - Benjamin Harrow (fox in socks read aloud txt) 📗

Huyghens’ wave theory of light, now so generally accepted, loses its entire significance if a medium for the propagation of these waves is left out of consideration. This medium we call the ether.1

Huyghens’ reasoning may be illustrated in some such way as this: If a body moves a force pushes or pulls it. That force itself is exemplified in some kind of matter—say a horse. The horse in pulling a cart is attached to the cart. The horse in pulling a boat may not be attached to the boat directly but to a rope, which in turn is attached to the boat. In common cases where one piece of matter affects another, there is some direct contact, some go-between.

But cases are known where matter affects matter without affording us any evidence of contact. Take the case of a magnet’s attraction for a piece of iron. Where is the rope that pulls the iron towards the magnet? Perhaps you think the attraction due to the air in between the magnet and iron? But removing the air does not stop the attraction. Yet how can we conceive of the iron being drawn to the magnet unless there is some go-between? some medium not readily perceptible to the senses perhaps, and therefore not strictly a form of matter?

If we can but picture some such medium we can imagine our magnet giving rise to vibrations in this medium which are carried to the iron. The magnet may give rise to a disturbance in that portion of the medium nearest to it; then this portion hands over the disturbance to its neighbor, the next portion of the medium; and so on, until the disturbance reaches the iron. You see, we are satisfying our sense-perception by arguing in favor of action by actual contact rather than some vague action at a distance; the go-between instead of being a rope is the medium called the ether.

Foucault’s experiment completely shattered the corpuscular theory of light, and for want of any other more plausible alternative, we are thrown back on Huyghens’ wave theory. It will presently appear that this wave theory has elements in it which make it an excellent alternative. In the meantime, if light is to be considered as a wave motion, then the query immediately arises, what is the medium through which these waves are propagated? If water is the medium for the waves of the sea, what is the medium for the waves of light? Again we answer, the medium is the ether.

What Is This “Ether”? Balloonists find conditions more and more uncomfortable the higher they ascend, for the density of the air (and therefore the amount of oxygen in a given volume of air) becomes less and less. Meteorologists have calculated that traces of the air we breathe may reach a height of some 200 miles. But what is beyond? Nothing but the ether, it is claimed. Light from the sun and stars reaches us via the ether.

But what is this ether? We cannot handle it. We cannot see it. It fails to fall within the scope of any of our senses, for every attempt to show its presence has failed. It is spirit-like in the popular sense. It is Lodge’s medium for the souls of the departed.

Helmholtz and Kelvin tried to arrive at some properties of this hypothetical substance from a careful study of the manner in which waves were propagated through this ether. If, as the wave theory teaches us, the ether can be set in motion, then according to laws of mechanics, the ether has mass. If so it is smaller in amount than anything which can be detected with our most accurate balance. Further—and this is a difficulty not easily explained—if this ether has any mass, why does it offer no detectable resistance to the velocity of the planets in it? Why is not the velocity of the planets reduced in time, just as the velocity of a rifle bullet decreases owing to the resistance of the air?

Lodge, in arguing in favor of an ether, holds that its presence cannot be detected because it pervades all space and all matter. His favorite analogy is to point out the extreme unlikelihood of a deep-sea fish discovering the presence of the water with which it is surrounded on all sides;—all of which tells us nothing about the ether, but does try to tell us why we cannot detect it.2

In short, answering the query at the head of this paragraph, we may say that we do not know.

Waves Set up in This Ether. The waves are not all of the same length. Those that produce the sensation of sight are not the smallest waves known, yet their length is so small that it would take anywhere from one to two million of them to cover a yard. Curiously enough, our eye is not sensitive to wave lengths beyond either side of these limits; yet much smaller, and much larger waves are known. The smallest are the famous X-rays, which are scarcely one ten-thousandth the size of light waves. Waves which have a powerful chemical action—those which act on a photographic plate, for example—are longer than X-rays, yet smaller than light waves. Waves larger than light waves are those which produce the sensation of heat, and those used in wireless telegraphy. The latter may reach the enormous length of 5,000 yards. X-ray, actinic, or chemically active ray, light ray, heat ray, wireless ray—they differ in size, yet they all have this in common: they travel with the same speed (186,000 miles per second).

The Electromagnetic Theory of Light. Powerful support to the conception that space is pervaded by ether was given when Maxwell discovered light to be an electromagnetic phenomenon. From purely theoretical considerations this gifted English physicist was led to the view that waves could be set up as a result of electrical disturbances. He proved that such waves would travel with the same velocity as light waves. As air is not needed to transmit electrical phenomena—for you can pump all air out of a system and produce a vacuum, and electrical phenomena will continue—Maxwell was forced to the conclusion that the waves set up by electrical disturbances and transmitted with the same velocity as light, were enabled to do so with the help of the same medium as light, namely, the ether.

It was now but a step for Maxwell to formulate the theory that light itself is nothing but an electrical phenomenon, the sensation of light being due to the passage of electric waves through the ether. This theory met with considerable opposition at first. Physicists had been brought up in a school which had taught that light and electricity were two entirely unrelated phenomena, and it was difficult for them to loosen the shackles that bound them to the older school. But two startling discoveries helped to fasten attention upon Maxwell’s theory. One was an experimental confirmation of Maxwell’s theoretical deduction. Hertz, a pupil of Helmholtz, showed how the discharge from a Leyden jar set up oscillations, which in turn gave rise to waves in the ether, comparable, in so far as velocity is concerned, to light waves, but differing from the latter in wave length, the Hertzian waves being much longer. At a later date these waves were further investigated by Marconi, with the result that wireless messages soon began to be flashed from one place to another.

Just as there is a close connection between light and electricity, so there is between light and magnetism. The first to point out such a relationship was the illustrious Michael Faraday, but we owe to Zeeman the most extensive investigations in this field.

If we throw some common salt into a flame, and, with the help of a spectroscope, examine the spectrum produced, we are struck by two bright lines which stand out very prominently. These lines, yellow in color, are known as the D-lines and serve to identify even minute traces of sodium. What is true of sodium is true of other elements: they all produce very characteristic spectra. Now Zeeman found that if the flame is placed between a powerful magnet, and then some common salt thrown into the flame, the two yellow lines give place to ten yellow lines. Such is one of the results of the effect of a magnetic field on light.

The Electron. The “Zeeman effect” led to several theories regarding its nature. The most successful of these was one proposed by Larmor and more fully treated by Lorentz. It has already been pointed out that the only difference between wireless and light waves is that the former are much “longer,” and, we may now add, their vibrations are much slower. Light and wireless waves bear a relationship to one another comparable to the relationship born by high and low-pitched sounds. To produce wireless waves we allow a charge of electricity to oscillate to and fro. These oscillations, or oscillating charges, are the cause of such waves. What charges give rise to light waves? Lorentz, from a study of the Zeeman effect, ascribed them to minute particles of matter, smaller than the chemical atom, to which the name “electron” was given.

The unit of electricity is the electron. Electrons in motion give rise to electricity, and electrons in vibration, to light. The Zeeman effect gave Lorentz enough data to calculate the mass of such electrons. He then showed that these electrons in a magnetic field would be disturbed by precisely the amount to which Zeeman’s observations pointed. In other words, the assumption of the electron fitted in most admirably with Zeeman’s experiments on magnetism and light.

In the meantime, a study of the discharge of electricity through gases, and, later, the discovery of radium, led, among other things, to a study of beta or cathode rays—negatively charged particles of electricity. Through a series of strikingly original experiments J. J. Thomson ascertained the mass of such particles or corpuscles, and then the very striking fact was brought out that Thomson’s corpuscle weighed the same as Lorentz’s electron. The electron was not merely the unit of electricity but the smallest particle of matter.

The Nature of Matter. All matter is made up of some eighty-odd elements. Oxygen, copper, lead are examples of such elements. Each element in turn consists of an innumerable number of atoms, of a size so small, that 300 million of them could be placed alongside of one another without their total length exceeding one inch.

John Dalton more than a hundred years ago postulated a theory, now known as the atomic theory, to explain one of the fundamental laws in chemistry. This theory started out with an old Greek assumption that matter cannot be divided indefinitely, but that, by continued subdivision, a point would be reached beyond which no further breaking up would be possible. The particles at this stage Dalton called atoms.

Dalton’s atomic hypothesis became one of the pillars upon which the whole superstructure of chemistry rested, and this because it explained a number of perplexing difficulties so much more satisfactorily than any other hypothesis.

For nearly a century Dalton stood as firm as a rock. But early in the nineties some epoch-making experiments on the discharge of electricity through gases were begun by a group of physicists, particularly Crookes, Rutherford, Lenard, Roentgen, Becquerel, and, above all, J. J. Thomson, which pointed very clearly to the fact that the atoms are not